Gen.1.1-50.26
Genesis is the book of beginnings—of the universe and of humanity, of sin and its catastrophic effects, and of God’s plan to restore blessing to the world through his chosen people. God began his plan when he called Abraham and made a covenant with him. Genesis traces God’s promised blessings from generation to generation, to the time of bondage and the need for redemption from Egypt. It lays the foundation for God’s subsequent revelation, and most other books of the Bible draw on its contents. Genesis is a source of instruction, comfort, and edification.
Setting
When Genesis was written, the children of Israel had been slaves in Egypt for four hundred years. They had recently been released from bondage and guided through the desert to meet the Lord at Mount Sinai, where he had established his covenant relationship with them and had given them his law through Moses. Israel was now poised to enter the Promised Land and receive the inheritance that God had promised Abraham.
While enslaved in Egypt, the Israelites had adopted many pagan ideas and customs from their Egyptian masters (see Exod 32:1-4). They were influenced by false concepts of God, the world, and human nature, and were reduced to being slaves rather than owners and managers of the land. Perhaps they had forgotten the great promises that God had made to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, or perhaps they had concluded that the promises would never be fulfilled.
Before entering the Promised Land, the Israelites needed to understand the nature of God, his world, and their place in it more clearly. They needed to embrace their identity as descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Genesis provided the needed understanding.
Summary
Genesis traces God’s work to overcome with blessing the curse that came on humankind because of sin. The book arranges family traditions, genealogies, historical events, and editorial comments into a single, sustained argument.
Every section of Genesis but the first has the heading “This is the account” (or These are the generations; Hebrew toledoth). Each of the toledoth sections explains the history of a line of descent. In each case, a deterioration of well-being is followed by an increasing focus on God’s plan to bless the world. This plan is the basis for God’s covenant with his people; as the blessing develops, the covenant is clarified. By the end of the book, the reader is ready for the fulfillment of the promises.
The first section (1:1–2:3) does not have the toledoth heading—it is the account of creation “in the beginning” (1:1). The work of creation is wrapped in God’s approval and blessing as he fulfills his plan.
The next section (2:4–4:26) focuses on the creation of human life (2:4-25) and traces what became of God’s creation because of Adam’s and Eve’s sin (3:1-13), the curse on their sin (3:14-24), and the extension of sin to their descendants (4:1-24). Humanity no longer enjoyed God’s rest; instead, they experienced guilt and fear. So they fled from God and developed a civilization marked by pride.
Independence from God resulted in the downward drift of human life (5:1–6:8). The genealogy of 5:1-32 begins by recalling that human beings were made in God’s image and were blessed by him (5:1-2). As the genealogy is traced, the death of each generation reminds the reader of the curse, with Enoch providing a ray of hope that the curse is not final. In 6:1-8, we learn that God regretted having made humans and decided to judge the earth. Noah, however, received God’s favor and provided a source of hope (5:29; 6:8).
The next section (6:9–9:29) relays the curse of judgment through the flood followed by blessing in a new beginning. Creation was renewed, purged of the abominable evil that had invaded and ruined the human race.
But as the world’s population increased and expanded into various nations (10:1–11:9), the people were again bent on disobedience. Because of their rebellion, God dispersed them to prevent greater wickedness (11:1-9).
After the chaos of the scattered nations, 11:10-26 brings the focus to Abram, through whom God chose to bring blessing to all. The rest of the book (11:27–50:26) tells of God’s blessing Abram and his descendants. God first made a covenant with Abram (11:27–25:11), promising him a great nation, land, and name. As time went on, God made the specific terms of the covenant clearer, and Abram’s faith grew deeper.
As it discusses each generation, Genesis gives a brief account of the families that are not Israel’s ancestors before turning to the line of Israel. For example, after briefly reporting what became of Ishmael (25:12-18), Genesis traces in detail what happened to Isaac and his family (25:19–35:29). Likewise, Esau’s line (Edom) is dealt with briefly (36:1–37:1) before the lengthy final section, which concerns the chosen line of Jacob the heir (37:2–50:26).
In this final section, Genesis records how Jacob’s family winds up in Egypt rather than in the land of Canaan. In spite of the tragic set of circumstances which led to their being in Egypt, God was still unfolding his plan for the people of Israel. The book closes with the promise of the Lord’s coming to rescue his people from Egypt (50:24-26).
Authorship
Like many biblical books, the author of Genesis is not explicitly identified. Many scholars have argued that the Pentateuch (Genesis—Deuteronomy) is the product of a complex literary evolution. The prevailing view, called the Documentary Hypothesis, is that Genesis through Deuteronomy was compiled from various sources. This hypothesis proposes that the Pentateuch comes from four sources: J (“Jahwist,” from “Yahweh”), E (“Elohist,” from “Elohim”), D (“Deuteronomic,” from Deuteronomy), and P (“Priestly”). It is thought that these sources were written and collected between 850 BC and 445 BC, gradually being combined and edited until around Ezra’s time (400s BC).
Both Scripture and tradition attribute the Pentateuch to Moses, however. Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians (Acts 7:22), and he had the literary skills to collect and edit Israel’s traditions and records and to compose this theological treatise. His unique communion with God gave him the spiritual illumination, understanding, and inspiration needed to guide him. He had good reason to write this work—to provide Israel with the theological and historical foundation for the Exodus and the covenant at Sinai, and to establish the new nation in accord with the promises made to their ancestors.
It is possible that Moses served as the fundamental source of the material recorded in the Pentateuch and that some editorial adjustments were subsequently made (including the record of Moses’ death, Deut 34). Regardless, the Israelites accepted the Pentateuch as bearing the full force of Moses’ authority.
Composition
It is widely recognized that various sources were used in writing Genesis (and other historical texts in the Bible such as Kings and Luke. The author used collections of family records, oral traditions, ancient accounts of primeval events, and genealogies to write Genesis. Those sources could have been incorporated as received, or the author may have changed their style and wording, stitching them together with additional material for the particular purpose of tracing the foundations of Israelite faith.
Genesis also includes passages and expressions that are obviously later editorial glosses. Some sections (such as the list of Edomite kings, 36:31-43) could have been added during the early days of the monarchy. There is no conflict in saying that Genesis was authored by Moses and augmented by subsequent editors whose work was guided by the Holy Spirit.
Literary Character
Genesis includes various types of literature. Several suggestions have been made as to the nature of the materials.
Myth. Mythological literature explains the origins of things symbolically through the deeds of gods and supernatural creatures. For ancient peoples, myths were beliefs that explained life and reality. Whole systems of ritual activities were developed to ensure that the forces of fertility, life, and death would continue year by year. Some of these rituals gave rise to cult prostitution (see Gen 38:15, 21-22).
It would be very difficult to classify the material in Genesis as simply a myth alongside the other myths of the earth’s origins. Israel had one God, not a multitude. The nation of Israel had a beginning, a history, and a future hope. They saw God, rather than gods and other supernatural creatures, as the primary actor in the world. Their worship was not cosmic, magical, or superstitious, but a reenactment of their own rescue from Egypt and a celebration of God’s actual intervention in history and their hope in his promises.
If Genesis uses elements of mythological language, it is to display a deliberate contrast with pagan concepts and to show that the Lord God is sovereign over such ideas. For example, many ancient peoples worshiped the sun as a god, but in Genesis the sun serves the Creator’s wishes (1:14-18). The book of Genesis is a cemetery for lifeless myths and dead gods.
Etiology. A number of scholars describe the Genesis narratives as etiologies, stories that explain the causes of factual reality or traditional beliefs. The implication is that such stories were made up for explanatory purposes and do not describe historical events. For example, if one says that the story of Cain and Abel was made up to explain why shepherds and farmers do not get along, the account loses its integrity as factual history.
Etiological elements certainly occur in Genesis, as the book gives the foundation and rationale for almost everything that Israel would later do. For example, the creation account of Genesis 2 ends with the explanation, “This explains why a man leaves his father and mother. . . .” The event as it happened explains why marriage was conducted the way it was, but to say that a story explains something is quite different from saying that the story was fabricated to explain it. The stories of Genesis are not simply fictional tales invented to explain later customs and beliefs.
History. Many scholars object to regarding Genesis as history, for two basic reasons: (1) Genesis explains events as caused by God, and the inclusion of the supernatural is regarded as proof that the material is theological reflection and thus not historically reliable; and (2) the events in Genesis cannot be validated from outside sources; no other records have demonstrated that Abraham existed or that any of his family history occurred.
Modern philosophies of history exclude the supernatural as an explanation of historical events, but there is no reason to do so arbitrarily. If God exists and is able to act, then he might very well be the ultimate cause of all historical events and the immediate cause of specific historical events. The Israelites were not as distrustful of supernatural events as are modern critics; they recognized such events as God acting among them to fulfill the promises recorded in Genesis.
It is true that no direct evidence of the patriarchs or the events in Genesis has been found, but archaeology confirms the plausibility of Genesis by showing that the historical situation in that era (Middle Bronze I, 2000–1800 BC) corresponds closely to what Genesis portrays. The details of the narratives make perfectly good sense in that context.
Theological Interpretation. Genesis was not intended as a chronicle of the lives of the patriarchs, a history for history’s sake, or a complete biography. It is clearly a theological interpretation of selected records of the nation’s ancestors, but this does not damage its historicity. Interpretations of an event can differ, but the offering of interpretations is a good witness to the actuality of the events. The author retold the events in his own way, incorporating particular theological emphases, but that does not mean that the stories were invented.
Tradition. What was thus committed to writing is tradition in the reverent care of literary genius. It is possible that Abram brought the primeval accounts and the family genealogies from Mesopotamia, and stories about the family were added to these collections. Joseph could easily have preserved all the traditions, both written and oral, in Egypt with his own records. Then, Moses could have compiled the works substantially in their present form while adding his editorial comments, working under God’s inspiration and guidance.
Instructional Literature. Since Genesis is the first book of the Pentateuch (the “Torah” or Law), it may be best to classify it as “Torah Literature” (Hebrew torah, “instruction, law”). Genesis is instructional literature that lays the foundation for the Law. It includes theological interpretation of the historical traditions standing behind the covenant at Sinai. It thus prepares its readers to receive God’s law and to connect themselves to the promises made to their forefathers. Genesis is therefore a unique work. Theology, history, and tradition come together to instruct God’s people and prepare them for blessing.
Meaning and Message
Israel’s most important questions were answered by the Genesis narratives. Life and death, the possession of the land of Canaan, and how Israel ended up in Egypt are explained as God’s providential working in history. Israel is presented as having an integral part in God’s plan for the world. His plan had a starting point at creation and will have an end point in the future when the promises are completely fulfilled.
Israel, the Chosen People. The central theme of Genesis is that God made a covenant with Abraham and his descendants. He promised to make them his own people, heirs of the land of Canaan, and make them a blessing to the world. Genesis gave Israel the theological and historical basis for its existence as God’s chosen people.
Israel could trace its ancestry to the patriarch Abraham and its destiny to God’s promises (12:1-3; 15:1-21; 17:1-8). Because the promise of a great nation was crucial, much of Genesis is devoted to family concerns of the patriarchs and their wives, their sons and heirs, and their birthrights and blessings. The record shows how God preserved and protected the chosen line through the patriarchs. Israel thus knew that they had become the great nation promised to Abraham. Their future was certainly not in slavery to the Egyptians, but in Canaan, where they would live as a free nation and as the people of the living God, and where they could mediate God’s blessings to the people of the world.
Blessing and Curse. The entire message of Genesis turns on the motifs of blessing and cursing. The promised blessing would give the patriarchs innumerable descendants and give the descendants the land of promise; the blessing would give them fame, enable them to flourish and prosper, and appoint them to bring others into the covenant blessings. The curse, meanwhile, would alienate, deprive, and disinherit people from the blessing. The effects of the curse are felt by the whole race as death and pain and as God’s judgment on the world.
These motifs continue throughout the Bible. Prophets and priests spoke of even greater blessings in the future and an even greater curse for those who refuse God’s gift of salvation and its blessings. The Bible reminds God’s people not to fear human beings, but to fear God, who has the power to bless and to curse.
Good and Evil. In Genesis, that which is good is blessed by God: It produces, enhances, preserves, and harmonizes with life. That which is evil is cursed: It causes pain, diverts from what is good, and impedes or destroys life. Genesis traces the perpetual struggle between good and evil that characterizes our fallen human race. God will bring about the greater good, build the faith of his people, and ultimately triumph over all evil (cp. Rom 8:28).
God’s Plan. Genesis begins with the presupposition that God exists and that he has revealed himself in word and deed to Israel’s ancestors. It does not argue for the existence of God; it simply begins with God and shows how everything falls into place when the sovereign God works out his plan to establish Israel as the means of restoring blessing to the whole world.
God’s Rule. Genesis is the fitting introduction to the founding of theocracy, the rule of God over all creation that was to be established through his chosen people. Genesis lays down the initial revelation of God’s sovereignty. He is the Lord of the universe who will move heaven and earth to bring about his plan. He desires to bless people, but he will not tolerate rebellion and unbelief. His promises are great, and he is fully able to bring them to fruition. To participate in his plan has always required faith, for without faith it is impossible to please him (Heb 11:6).
Exod.1.1-40.38
What does it mean to be in a relationship with God, the ultimate being in the universe? How does one establish that relationship? What is that relationship like, and what does it take to stay in it? These are questions that people around the world have been asking since the beginning of time. The book of Exodus provided the ancient Israelites with answers to such questions, revealing not only what was required of them in a relationship with God, but also what God had graciously done to make that relationship possible.
Setting
The Exodus occurred sometime between 1450 and 1250 BC, when Egypt was arguably the greatest military and cultural power in the world. During Egypt’s 18th dynasty (1550–1295 BC) the pharaohs built an empire beyond Egypt’s borders, extending its control far into the north, up the Canaanite coast, and far to the south along the Nile. This imperial thrust seems to have fueled a megalomaniacal building program. As the house of the pharaoh grew in power, so the god of the royal house, Amon-Re, gained dominance. The land remained staunchly polytheistic, but worship of Amon-Re seems to have surpassed devotion to all other gods.
It was during this period that the Israelites departed from Egypt. God did not sneak his people out during a time of Egyptian weakness; he led them forth when Egyptian strength was at its height.
Summary
The term exodus derives from the Greek word exodos, which means “the way out.” Exodus 1–15 is about the Hebrews’ “way out” of Egypt. The rest of Exodus (chs 16–40) reveals that the Hebrew people needed more than rescue from bondage in Egypt: They needed a way out of their sin and a way into fellowship with God. Exodus addresses Israel’s great needs: to be set free from bondage (chs 1–15), to know who God is and what he is like through the covenant at Sinai (chs 16–24), and to experience fellowship with God through the Tabernacle (chs 25–40). All of us have the same need to be set free, to know God, and to experience fellowship with him.
Authorship
Moses is traditionally considered the author of the Pentateuch (Genesis—Deuteronomy), though many scholars call this into question. See Genesis Book Introduction, “Authorship.”
The Date of the Exodus (1446 or 1270 BC)
The date of Israel’s exodus from Egypt is the key question in determining Israel’s early chronology. The Bible’s focus on the sequence of events and their meanings rather than a strict chronology makes it difficult, however, to assign exact dates for the Exodus. A number of chronological indicators help point the way.
First, according to 1 Kings 14:25-26, Pharaoh Shishak raided Judah in the fifth year of King Rehoboam’s reign. This date is known from sources outside the Bible to be 926 BC. Earlier dates in Israel’s history, such as the year Solomon began building the Temple (967 BC) and the date of the Exodus, are calculated by working backward from this fixed point and attempting to harmonize as much data as possible.
A second chronological indicator for the date of the Exodus is the “new king” who “knew nothing about Joseph” (Exod 1:8). This comment most likely signals the arrival of a new dynasty. In the 1700s BC, foreigners from Asia began migrating to Egypt. In 1648 BC, one group of such foreigners, the Hyksos, invaded Lower Egypt and gained control of the region. Joseph and Jacob very likely entered Egypt (Gen 39; 46) shortly before or during the Hyksos period. The Hyksos ruled until 1540 BC, when Pharaoh Ahmose (1550–1525 BC) expelled them. Ahmose and the pharaohs who followed him were probably the dynasty described by Exodus 1:8.
A third chronological indicator is the Merneptah Stela, an Egyptian monument dated to roughly 1209 BC, which mentions a clash with the Israelites in the southern part of Palestine. This is the first clear mention of Israel outside the Bible.
This evidence points to two possible scenarios for the date of the Exodus—an early date of about 1446 BC and a later date of about 1270 BC.
Early Exodus (about 1446 BC) The traditional scenario places the date of the Exodus around 1446 BC. According to 1 Kings 6:1, Solomon began construction of the Temple in the fourth year of his reign (967 BC), 480 years after the Exodus from Egypt. If the number 480 refers to calendar years, then the date of the Exodus was about 1446 BC, and Israel’s entry into Canaan was around 1406 BC. Archaeologists have discovered the Amarna letters, a cache of letters from Canaanite city chieftains asking Pharaoh Akhenaten (around 1352–1336 BC) to help them fight against certain rabble who were attacking them. This is a possible reference to the Israelites and would support the early dates for the Exodus and conquest. Additionally, in about 1100 BC Jephthah described Israel as having inhabited the Promised Land for 300 years (see Judg 11:26; cp. Num 21:21-35). The early date seems to fit best with the Bible’s own chronological information. A date near 1446 BC, therefore, has long been accepted.
Late Exodus (about 1270 BC) The late Exodus scenario places the Exodus from Egypt approximately 300 years before the dedication of Solomon’s temple in 967 BC, early in the reign of Pharaoh Rameses II (1279–1213 BC). The city of Rameses, which the Israelites helped build (Exod 1:11), was named after this pharaoh, and there is evidence of significant construction activity dating to the early 1200s BC at the site. Additionally, archaeologists working in Palestine between World Wars I and II reported that they were unable to find any evidence of the conquest taking place in the early 1300s BC, as required by the early date. They did, however, claim to have found evidence of conquest and increased settlement activity in the late 1200s BC. If these findings are accurate and reflect Israelite activity in the Promised Land, they would support the idea that the Exodus occurred around 1270 BC. Those who opt for this later date contend that the number 480 in 1 Kings 6:1 is a symbolic number (12 generations times 40 years to symbolize a generation); in that case, the actual length of time would have been closer to 300 years (12 generations times 25 years, the approximate length of an actual generation).
Dates for the Patriarchs
Genesis provides the relative ages of Israel’s patriarchs, Abraham to Joseph, but it does not fix absolute dates for their lives. Israel’s patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) were powerful family chiefs who moved from place to place. Unlike the leaders of empires who created permanent records, the patriarchs did not have palaces or libraries in which to deposit records. Also, the climate of Palestine is not favorable to the preservation of documents.
The date of the Exodus is therefore a key for calculating dates for the patriarchs. Calculations also take into account the lifespan of each patriarch; the chronological notations in Gen 12:4; 21:5; 25:26; 47:9 suggest that the patriarchs spent 215 years in Canaan.
The length of Israel’s stay in Egypt is an additional factor, and here there is a difference in texts. The Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT) for Exodus 12:40 says that Israel spent 430 years in Egypt, from the year that Jacob entered Egypt to the year of Israel’s Exodus. However, the early Greek Old Testament translation (the Septuagint, or LXX) and the Samaritan Pentateuch (another significant manuscript) both say that the 430-year period mentioned in Exodus 12:40 includes the time the Israelites spent in both Canaan and Egypt (a chronology that Paul apparently followed; see Gal 3:17). This chronology would reduce the time spent in Egypt to 215 years. Various biblical statements that Israel was in Egypt for 400 years or four generations (Gen 15:13-16; cp. Exod 6:16-20; Num 3:17-19; 26:58-59; 1 Chr 6:1-3; Acts 7:6) could support the reading of either the Hebrew or the Greek text.
Fitting all the data together is challenging. While the dates of the Exodus or the patriarchs cannot be determined with absolute certainty, perhaps they were never intended to be. The biblical authors did not set out to provide a complete chronological record. What we do have is an excellent correlation between Israel’s historical records and those of the surrounding cultures.
Meaning and Message
The opening chapters of Genesis depict a serious problem: God made the world and human beings for blessing (Gen 1:27-28), but the world fell under a curse. Humanity had become deeply corrupted (Gen 6:5), alienated from their Creator (Gen 3:23-24) and from one another (Gen 4:14). Death, violence, and confusion were rampant (Gen 4:8, 23-24; 11:9). Was there a way back to the blessing that God originally intended?
In Gen 12–50, God’s plan to restore the world begins to unfold. God chose Abraham and his descendants to be in a special covenant relationship with him, promising to make them into a prosperous nation through which the entire world would be blessed (Gen 12:1-3). Abraham believed God despite the fact that his wife seemed hopelessly barren (Gen 15:6), and God soon began to fulfill his promises (Gen 21:1-7).
As the book of Exodus begins, however, the validity of God’s promises to Abraham is in question. Yes, Abraham’s descendants had grown to a great number, but they were now slaves in Egypt, and Pharaoh, the mightiest king in the world, was committed to keeping them subjugated. As for the Promised Land, Abraham and his descendants had never actually owned any of it except for a burial plot (Gen 23). How would a group of slaves, slated to be absorbed into the Egyptian underclass, ever inherit the Promised Land and become a blessing to the world? Could God keep his promises? Did he even want to keep them? Did he really care for the Israelites, and did he even know what they were going through? Did the promises of Genesis have any real value?
In answering those questions, Exodus moves us far down the road to understanding who God is. God really does know our situation, and he values us. The Lord is in an altogether different category from “all other gods” (18:11). He is revealed in Exodus as the greatest being in existence (3:5-6, 14-15; 6:3), superior both to human kings who think of themselves as gods and to all the forces of nature. He is the one true God.
The people of Israel had spent some 400 years absorbing Egypt’s mistaken pagan beliefs. Now they would have to unlearn them: There are not many gods, only one. God is not the same as the natural world around them; he stands apart from the world, which he created. God cannot be manipulated by magic. Existence is not defined by an eternal struggle between positive and negative forces. God is holy, absolutely other, profoundly ethical in all of his relationships, passionately loyal to his creatures, and desiring to do good for them (34:5-6).
God used a covenant (Exod 19–23) to teach his people who he is and what their relationship with him should be like. The covenant teaches us God’s ethical nature. In the ancient world, ethics and religion were largely unrelated. By contrast, most of the requirements of God’s covenant have to do with how people treat one another (see 20:3-17). Those who are in a covenant relationship with God must treat one another ethically.
God rescues his people and calls us into a life of holiness in order that we may have a living, personal relationship with him. The Tabernacle chapters (25–40) are not an add-on; they are what the Exodus was all about. Yes, God would keep his promise of taking the people to the Promised Land, but his goal was for them to live in his presence without being destroyed by his holiness, and that is what happened (40:34-38). Salvation is not merely the forgiveness of sins. God’s goal for us is that, having been rescued from the bondage of sin, we might live daily in the glory of his presence and manifest his holy character.
Lev.1.1-27.34
Leviticus enabled ancient Israel to live in relationship with a holy God. But now that Christ has come as our High Priest and ultimate sacrifice—thereby fulfilling many of the requirements outlined in Leviticus—what do laws governing ancient Israel’s system of worship, with its priests and animal sacrifices, have to do with us? Leviticus increases our understanding of God’s holiness. And God’s demand for those who know him remains the same: “I am the Lord your God. . . . You must be holy because I am holy” (Lev 11:44-45; 1 Pet 1:15-16).
Setting
Leviticus continues the account of redemption that began with the promises made to Abraham (Gen 12, 15, 17) and the liberation of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt (Exod 1–15). The setting of Leviticus is the foot of Mount Sinai. The Israelites had not yet wandered in the wilderness or entered the Promised Land of Canaan. God had already established his covenant with Israel, declaring the Israelites to be his special treasure, royal priesthood, and chosen people (Exod 19:5-6). The people of Israel had received the Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1-17), the plans for the Tabernacle (Exod 25–27; 30:1-38), and the institution of the priesthood (Exod 28–29). The Tabernacle had been completed and dedicated (Exod 35–40). Now, in Leviticus, God spoke to Moses about his own holy nature, providing instructions about worship and conduct appropriate for Israel as his covenant people.
Summary
The regulations in Leviticus deal primarily with the activities and responsibilities of the priestly tribe of Levi, especially the high priest (see Exod 28; Num 3:44–4:49). It includes God’s instructions about the Tabernacle, the priesthood, sacrifices, holy days, and ceremonial purity. Three main concerns are evident throughout Leviticus: the holiness of God, what is appropriate in worshiping a holy God, and how Israel was to be holy in relation to God.
A proper relationship with God begins with knowing who God is and understanding his nature. Yet, finite human minds cannot fully comprehend God, the Eternal One. Worse, if left to our own intuition, we inevitably begin to worship idols rather than the true God. In Leviticus, God graciously reveals his holiness in tangible ways and instructs his people how to worship him acceptably. Each sacrifice and holy day teaches the Israelites about God and what he requires of them.
God calls Israel to know him and to love him (see Deut 6:5; 11:1). As a result, they will also love and serve one another (19:18, 33-34). The rituals and regulations revealed in Leviticus teach the Israelites how to integrate love and service into their lives, both as individuals and as a nation.
Authorship
Some scholars believe that Leviticus was written during Israel’s exile in Babylon (about 586–539 BC), long after the time of Moses. This view, however, does not explain why Judaism during the Exile, which was increasingly oriented around the rabbi and the synagogue, would be concerned with the priesthood and the Tabernacle. Nor does it account for Israelite worship prior to the Exile, aside from the liturgy contained or implied in the Psalms.
It is likely that Moses wrote Leviticus during Israel’s time in the wilderness after the Exodus. Both Jewish tradition and the early Christian church identified Moses as the author of Leviticus. Moses, raised in the court of Egypt’s king, would have been skilled in reading, writing, and mathematics (see Acts 7:20-22) and quite capable of writing Leviticus. The book begins and ends with statements affirming that the contents of Leviticus were given to Israel by God through Moses (1:1-2; 27:34). Leviticus repeatedly describes how Moses received the Lord’s instructions (e.g., 4:1; 5:14; 6:1, 8, 19, 24; 7:22, 28; 8:1) and carried them out (8:4–10:20). The Old Testament often refers to Moses as the author of the Pentateuch (Genesis—Deuteronomy; see Josh 8:31-32; 23:6; 1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Kgs 14:6; 23:25; 2 Chr 23:18; 30:16; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neh 8:1; Dan 9:11-13). The New Testament does the same (Matt 19:7-8; Luke 2:22; 24:44; John 7:19, 23; Rom 10:5; 1 Cor 9:9; Heb 10:28). See also Genesis Book Introduction, “Authorship.”
Meaning and Message
Although it is set in an ancient time and culture, Leviticus communicates a timeless and vibrant message: God is holy, and he expects his people, whom he has rescued, to be holy like he is. God’s holiness and his gracious redemption provide both the foundation and the motivation for his people’s own holiness (11:44-45).
The priests stood between God and the people as mediators of the covenant. The priests interpreted what was holy and how holiness should be expressed in the community. The atoning sacrifices provided the way for the people to have their sins forgiven and to be made right with God (atonement). The non-atoning sacrifices celebrated the people’s relationship with God through gifts and shared meals. While surrounding nations offered sacrifices to their gods to appease them and gain their favor, Israel’s worship was not designed to manipulate God. Rather, the worship prepared and purified the people so that they could approach God. Each of the laws, ceremonies, and holy days teaches that God is holy and that he expects his people to be holy (Lev 11:44-45; 19:2; see 1 Cor 3:17; 1 Pet 1:15).
Forgiveness of sin and reconciliation to God directly relate to how people treat one another. Concern for social justice pervades Leviticus, which sets forth obligations to one’s neighbor, to the poor, and to foreigners. God expects those in covenant with him to love each other as an expression of his love (cp. Matt 22:39; Mark 12:31; Luke 10:27; Rom 13:9; Gal 5:14; Jas 2:8).
Num.1.1-36.13
The book of Numbers tells the story of Israel in the wilderness, journeying toward the Promised Land from Mount Sinai. As Moses led Israel from Egypt to Canaan, God tested his people in the crucible of the wilderness to see if they would be faithful to him as a unified nation. Numbers documents their successes and failures. Israel’s disobedience resulted in the Lord’s judgment, always counterbalanced by his patient persistence in raising a new generation to fulfill his plan. With its many stories and the detailed exposition of God’s laws, Numbers gives us a dramatic account of the Lord’s nature, his covenant, and his plan for his people.
Setting
After leaving Egypt, the Israelites journeyed to Mount Sinai, where God gave them the law (see Exodus). They remained at Sinai for a year before traveling through the wilderness into Transjordan (the region east of the Jordan River) to camp on the plains of Moab. God tested Israel in the wilderness as the generation that made the exodus from Egypt passed away and a new generation prepared to enter the Promised Land. The book of Numbers instructed the new generation camped on the plains of Moab to obey the Lord.
Israel was shaped and purified during this wilderness sojourn. Through Moses’ literary efforts (and those of later scribes and editors), Numbers enabled successive generations to hear that story. It thus became a vital component of Hebrew memory. Numbers was written so that those who learned from history need not repeat mistakes from the past.
Summary
The book of Numbers gets its structure from the three stages of Israel’s journey through the wilderness: (1) the nineteen days in which Israel prepared to depart from Mount Sinai (1:1–10:10), (2) the thirty-nine-year journey from Sinai to the plains of Moab (10:11–22:1), and (3) the final months of Israel’s encampment on the plains of Moab shortly before they entered Canaan (21:1–36:13).
The two registrations of Israel’s men of military age (chs 1–4, 26) also shape Numbers. These registrations primarily measured the strength of Israel’s fighting force and the number of Levites, with the totals at the beginning of the book and toward the end of the book representing two completely different generations. The first census tallied the rebellious generation that left Egypt, received the law at Sinai, and died in the wilderness. The second registration numbered the new generation of Israelites that entered the Promised Land. The two counts are very close, showing that the second generation completely replaced the first.
Along the way, the Hebrews that left Egypt repeatedly rebelled (chs 11, 12, 14, 16–17, 20, 25). They all died in the wilderness except for Joshua and Caleb, whose faith was exemplary (13:30; 14:6-9).
Israel’s army was tested on several occasions before they entered Canaan (chs 14, 21, 31), and the story of Balaam is recounted (chs 22–24). Arrangements were made for settling Transjordan (ch 32), the wilderness journey was reviewed (ch 33), and Moses anticipated the occupation of Canaan (chs 34–36).
Numbers is a case study in how Israel maintained—and failed to maintain—covenant regulations in their day-to-day experiences.
Authorship
As with the other books of the Pentateuch, Moses has traditionally been recognized as the author of Numbers. Until the advent of modern scholarship, both Jewish and Christian scholars held to Moses’ authorship; the Old Testament, the New Testament, and much ancient Jewish literature also made this assumption. References to Moses’ role as author occur throughout the Pentateuch (e.g., Num 33:1-2). There is no need to exclude Moses out of hand as the primary author—on the basis of content or the level of literacy feasible at the time of the Exodus and conquest—except in passages such as the account of his death (Deut 34). It is also possible that Moses supervised the compilation of books credited to him or, like the apostle Paul, dictated parts of his writings.
Many scholars postulate various sources from which later editors created the books of the Pentateuch, but this “Documentary Hypothesis” remains speculative (see Genesis Book Introduction, “Authorship”). Even allowing for later modifications by scribes and editors, Numbers substantially represents itself as Moses’ work.
Date and Geography
The geographical, cultural, and linguistic data related to Numbers fit either an early date or a late date (1400s or 1200s BC) for the Exodus and conquest (see Exodus Book Introduction, “The Date of the Exodus”).
The archaeological evidence from Sinai, the Negev, and Transjordan (Edom, Moab, and Ammon) also contributes significantly to discussion about the historical background of the conquest. Scholars are unable to identify exact locations for many place-names mentioned in the wilderness itinerary, and there are problems with various other sites named in Numbers.
Literary Issues
Title of the Book. The name “Numbers” derives from this book’s interest in statistics (see chs 1–4, 26). This title is the English translation of the Latin title Numeri and the Greek Arithmoi, the names given to this book by the Latin Vulgate and Greek Septuagint translations of the Old Testament. The registration accounts show with mathematical precision that the Israelites who left Egypt were not the same people who crossed the Jordan into Canaan. In the Hebrew Bible, the book of Numbers is called bemidbar (“in the wilderness”), the fourth word of Num 1:1 in the Hebrew text. This title is certainly appropriate, since it reflects the book’s geographical setting and chronological framework.
Literary Genres. The book of Numbers includes a variety of common literary genres, such as narrative (e.g., 10:11–14:45), poetry (e.g., chs 23–24), and law (e.g., chs 4–6). It also contains detailed lists of facts and figures, such as registration tallies (e.g., chs 1–4), offerings (e.g., ch 7), and travel itineraries (e.g., ch 33). The NLT compiles various prose lists into concise tables of names and numbers (chs 1–2; 13, 34).
Literary Sources. The Hebrew Bible identifies ancient sources that Moses (and perhaps later editors) consulted, such as The Book of the Wars of the Lord (21:14-15), the “Song of the Well” (21:17-18), and the “Song of Heshbon” (21:27-30). Chapters 23–24 contain many poetic lines from the non-Israelite prophet Balaam; 31:32-47 seems to be based on an actual record of war spoils; and chapter 33 appears to derive from a written diary.
Text. The Hebrew text of Numbers is very well preserved, except for a few sections of poetry in chapters 21–24 that are difficult to interpret. The generally good condition of the Hebrew text is evident when comparing the Hebrew Masoretic Text (AD 900s) with much earlier fragments of Numbers found in the Dead Sea Scrolls (150 BC—AD 125); there are only a few insignificant variations between the two. Greater differences exist between the Masoretic Text, equivalent sections in the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint), and the Samaritan Pentateuch, but they represent deliberate differences of interpretation, not just variant readings of the manuscripts.
Meaning and Message
Numbers explains how God provided for his people’s needs, and it documents the Israelites’ repeated disobedience as they rebelled against the Lord’s commands. The Israelites did not wander in the wilderness for forty years because they were lost, but because of their faithlessness and rebellion.
Numbers highlights Israel’s struggle with God. As often as God called the Israelites to adhere to the law, they disobeyed him. The Israelites could count on God’s provision for their physical necessities and for guidance and instruction through their chosen leaders. Yet God’s constant provision was often met with lack of faith. Numbers illustrates the swift judgment of a holy God, while teaching that the Lord is faithful and patient.
As in ancient Israel, all communities of believers need unwavering leadership, and Numbers continues to warn those who too easily forget God’s holy nature. Specific episodes from Numbers are used in the New Testament as powerful object lessons:
•In 1 Corinthians 10:1-11, the apostle Paul warns his readers to avoid idolatry, immorality, and grumbling so that they will not perish like the Israelites in the wilderness. God is not pleased with such behavior, and followers of Christ must not put God to the test (1 Cor 10:9).
•The author of Hebrews identifies repeated instances of Israel’s hardhearted and disobedient spirit and says that God responded to this waywardness with swift and certain wrath (Heb 3:7–4:11). These verses, which draw heavily on the language of Psalm 95, are saturated with terms that reflect God’s judgment of Israel’s sin.
•Jude 1:5 teaches Christians about faithfulness by summarizing Numbers.
The same God who liberated his people from Egypt destroyed that rebellious generation because they did not believe and obey. Like ancient Israel, Christians must learn from the mistakes of the past and live in faith and obedience to their Lord.
Deut.1.1-34.12
God first revealed Israel’s national “constitution” to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23). The great leader Moses was now about to die. God had appointed a younger man, Joshua, to replace Moses, but he was not yet fully tested. Israel had been rescued from slavery in Egypt and miraculously preserved through forty years of wandering in the wilderness. The Israelites now stood on the verge of entering the land promised to them, but it was inhabited by powerful and hostile enemies. Although God had been faithful in the past, the future seemed uncertain. Deuteronomy is the account of Israel’s covenant with God renewed—a covenant that would guide Israel to God’s blessings throughout the remainder of their history as a nation.
Setting
Forty years after their exodus from Egypt, the Israelites arrived at the plains of Moab, just across the Jordan River from Jericho. After four decades of wandering, they were poised to cross the Jordan, conquer the Canaanite nations, and settle their land in fulfillment of God’s promises to Abraham. First, however, God would renew his covenant with them.
Moses was aware that he would die before leading his people to their destination. So, prior to his death, he needed to remind the people of the terms of the covenant that God had revealed to him. The initial covenant, suitable for Israel while en route to Canaan, had been made thirty-eight years earlier at Sinai (Exod 19–24). Now, in anticipation of Israel’s establishment as a settled community, the original covenant must be restated and enlarged. The book of Deuteronomy is this restatement.
Summary
Deuteronomy is Moses’ farewell address to the tribes of Israel. The book includes narratives, exhortations, warnings, instructions, and promises of blessings or curses in relation to Israel’s faithfulness. Deuteronomy is composed as a treaty text, using elements common to covenants between nations. It is similar to other treaties known from ancient Near Eastern sources, particularly from Hittite archives. Moses thus communicates God’s purposes to Israel in a familiar literary and legal form.
The formal structures of Deuteronomy yield a great deal of insight into the theological nature of the book. As a covenant text, it underscores the seriousness of God’s promises and of Israel’s need (as the covenant partner) to obey the terms of the treaty so that God can fulfill his promises. As a farewell speech, it is rooted in a historical and geographical setting.
The following outline reflects the analysis of Deuteronomy as a covenant document:
1:1-5 Preamble to the covenant
1:6–4:49 Historical prologue
5:1–26:15 Stipulations of the covenant
26:16–29:1 Blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience
29:2–30:20 Review of the covenant and choice between life and death
31:1-29 Deposit of the text of the covenant
31:30–32:43 Witnesses of the covenant
The outline embedded in the Bible text reflects Deuteronomy’s structure both as a covenant text and as a farewell speech communicated in a series of sermons.
Authorship
Long-standing Jewish and Christian tradition holds that Moses wrote Deuteronomy. Both the Old Testament and New Testament acknowledge Moses’ authorship of the book (see 1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Kgs 14:6; 2 Chr 25:4; Ezra 3:2; Matt 19:7; Mark 12:19; Luke 20:28; Acts 3:22-23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9).
However, during the past two hundred years, critical scholars have denied that Moses wrote Deuteronomy. Some scholars identify Deuteronomy as the scroll found in the Temple in King Josiah’s time (around 621 BC; see 2 Kgs 22:8-20) and argue that Deuteronomy should be dated in close proximity to that time. Some also attribute editorial additions as late as the period following the Exile (538 BC and later).
Archaeologists have discovered Hittite treaty texts originating in the Late Bronze Age (1500–1200 BC), around the time of Moses. These texts, which contain a number of similarities to Deuteronomy, provide support for an early authorship of the book. Some scholars compare Deuteronomy to seventh-century Assyrian treaty texts that are closer to Josiah’s time. However, the Hittite texts are more similar to Deuteronomy in structure and content than the Assyrian examples, making it less likely that Deuteronomy was written during the later period.
In short, the traditional viewpoint that Moses authored the majority of the book is a reasonable conclusion. Certain editorial additions were included later (e.g., the account of Moses’ death; 34:5-12). See further Genesis Book Introduction, “Authorship.”
Literary Form
Deuteronomy’s structure resembles other treaty texts drawn up between various nations in the period of the Exodus and the conquest. Some of these were treaties between equals, while others were suzerain-vassal treaties. In a suzerain-vassal treaty, the superior party (the suzerain, or “great king”) would make demands of and offer promises to subject peoples (the vassals) in return for their unqualified obedience.
Deuteronomy is a suzerain-vassal treaty between God and Israel. God called the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to be his servant people. He took the lead in the relationship, determined the terms for maintaining the treaty, and offered promises of blessing if Israel obeyed and judgment if the nation disobeyed.
Moses’ use of the suzerain-vassal treaty format makes it clear that Deuteronomy is a covenant text. God chose Israel to be his special people. It was not the covenant that made them so, for they were already identified as God’s people before the Exodus (Exod 4:22-23). Rather, the text of the covenant regulated their behavior. By reviewing the covenant with this generation of Israelites, Moses ensured that they would enter the Promised Land as God’s covenant people.
Meaning and Message
The covenant is the leading theme of Deuteronomy—and perhaps of the entire Old Testament. The covenant provided the means for the Lord to unite himself to Israel. The covenant stated that the Lord was Israel’s God, Israel was God’s people, and the relationship between them would achieve God’s redemptive purposes. This awesome privilege also included profound responsibility. Could Israel conduct itself in a manner that would guarantee the success of its mission? What standards of behavior would enable them to fulfill their calling?
Israel had the freedom to accept or reject God’s covenant (Exod 19:7-8). Once they accepted it, the distribution of blessings and curses, as outlined within the covenant, depended on whether they obeyed or disobeyed (28:1-6, 15-19). Yet even disobedience could be overcome if the nation would repent, return, and be restored to covenant fellowship (30:1-10; see also Lev 26:40-45).
This covenant did not make Israel God’s people; God’s promise of a national offspring to Abraham had already done that (Gen 17:1-8). The covenant made at Sinai gave Israel the privilege of serving the Lord as a kingdom of priests (Exod 19:4-6). Deuteronomy reiterates the terms and conditions of that covenant: If Israel could remain faithful in its role as a “kingdom of priests and [God’s] holy nation,” it would direct God’s blessings to the whole world.
The Israelites were the unique people of God. God made promises to the nation’s forefathers that he fulfilled in the Exodus and in creating the nation. He was ready to solidify Israel in the conquest of the Promised Land and move the nation forward until his purposes were complete. The book of Deuteronomy established the principles of faithful life and ministry that would ensure Israel’s ongoing relationship with God in achieving those objectives. Israel had the indescribable honor of partnering with Almighty God to bring about his plan for the ages.
Josh.1.1-24.33
The account of Israel’s soldiers walking around Jericho until its walls came tumbling down is one of the most famous in the Bible. Joshua had served as Moses’ apprentice, so when God appointed Joshua as Israel’s leader, he was ready. He led the Israelites across the Jordan River and through two campaigns that enabled them to settle the hill country of Canaan. As they began to live there, Joshua divided the land among Israel’s twelve tribes. The book of Joshua reveals much about God: He judges sin and faithfully keeps his promises.
Setting
When Israel was in Egypt, they were enslaved by a nation that was the most powerful, prosperous, and secure on earth. But God intervened on Israel’s behalf, and Egypt was devastated. The Israelites then spent forty years in the wilderness because they refused to believe that God could do for them in Canaan what he had already done in bringing them out of Egypt. The disbelieving generation died and a new generation came of age. The new generation believed God’s promises and was ready to invade the land of Canaan.
Ancient Canaan was subdivided by geographical features into four narrow north–south strips. (1) To the east of the Jordan River was the plateau of Transjordan (the land “across the Jordan”). (2) Westward, the land drops steeply into the deep cut of the Jordan River valley. The deepest dry point of this valley, the shore of the Dead Sea, marks the lowest dry land on the surface of the earth. (3) The central hill country runs from the mountains and hills of Galilee in the north to the Negev in the south. (4) The Coastal Plain lies along the Mediterranean Sea, interrupted near its northern end by the ridge of Mount Carmel that juts into the sea. In the narrative of Joshua, Israel began at Acacia Grove in Transjordan, crossed the Jordan River, conquered Jericho and the central hill country, and took up settlements in the regions that had been cleared.
Much of Canaan was organized into small city-states, each with its own king. These city-states were grouped in ever-shifting coalitions. The assembling of a southern and then a northern coalition against the invading Israelites was as close to total unity as these city-states ever came. However, even these coalitions were not enough to save the Canaanites.
Summary
The first half of Joshua (chs 1–12) is among the most dramatic narratives in the Bible. In preparing Israel to cross the Jordan, Joshua sent two young men to scout out Jericho, a town Israel would have to conquer in order to enter the hill country. The young scouts were aided by a woman named Rahab, and they promised to spare her and her family in return for her help (ch 2). The Israelites crossed the Jordan River, the flow of which had been miraculously halted (ch 3). Then God gave Israel the city of Jericho by causing its walls to fall (ch 6).
Possession of Jericho opened the routes that ascended westward into the hill country. But a man named Achan disobeyed God’s instructions, displeasing the Lord, and Israel suffered a setback before Achan’s sin was discovered and judged (ch 7). God then gave Joshua a resounding victory over the hastily gathered coalition of southern Canaanite city-states; God even granted Joshua’s request for the sun and moon to stand still until the victory was complete (ch 10). Joshua then turned northward, where he gained a similarly decisive victory over a northern coalition of city-states (ch 11). The entire hill country, from the Negev in the south to Upper Galilee in the north, now lay open for Israelite settlement.
The second half of Joshua (chs 13–24) contains the informative account of the allotment of Israel’s territory, including detailed descriptions of the territories given to Judah, Benjamin, and Joseph (chs 15–19); these tribes became the central tribes of Israel. Caleb’s and Joshua’s inheritances begin and end this section of territorial allotments (chs 15 and 19). The designation of six cities of refuge (ch 20) and the assignment of towns to the Levites within each tribal territory (ch 21) complete the process of allotting the land to the tribes. The 2½ tribes given land on the east side of the Jordan River were released to return home, but they had to clear up a misunderstanding with the western tribes about the building of a memorial (ch 22). The book concludes with Joshua’s farewell (ch 23), his convening of the people to renew their covenant with God, and three prominent funerals (ch 24).
Author and Date
Nowhere does the book of Joshua claim that Joshua was its author. Both the frequent occurrence of the phrase “to this day” and the reference to The Book of Jasharthe book of Jasher as a source for Joshua indicate that the book was written after Joshua’s death. Yet the occurrence of the pronoun “we” in portions of the narrative provides evidence that at least some of the book is based on personal recollections of Joshua and of those under his command. It is likely that the book of Joshua existed in more or less its present form no later than Israel’s early monarchy (the time of David and Solomon). The human author or authors of Joshua remain anonymous.
Joshua as History
In the last two centuries, some scholars have attempted to discredit the historical validity of Joshua by arguing that Transjordan (the area east of the Jordan River) and the cities of Jericho and Ai were not occupied when Israel entered Canaan, so Israel could not have conquered them. However, archaeological surveys show that Transjordan was occupied when Israel entered Canaan and that Jericho was indeed destroyed as Joshua describes.
Other scholars argue that accounts having an explanatory purpose (such as those explaining the origin of a name) cannot be historical. However, although some explanatory accounts found in ancient texts are mythical or false, many others are historically accurate. The content of the book of Joshua was probably first written down near the time of the events it includes. It shows every indication of being historically accurate, even though it does not answer every historical question readers might bring to it.
For most of the time that it has been part of the Scriptures, the book of Joshua has been regarded as reliable history. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings stand in contrast with the epic, mythical, and royal self-congratulatory literature produced by surrounding cultures. These biblical books provide a selective history of ancient Israel in the land where God placed them. And they were written from a prophetic perspective—from the same point of view as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve Minor Prophets—which regarded Israel as living in a covenant relationship with God.
Joshua thus records only the broad outlines of Israel’s entry into Canaan. The book of Joshua neither states nor implies that Israel destroyed all of the Canaanites and their cities. Many Canaanites remained, as the following book of Judges also makes clear. The multi-generation history of Israel recorded in Judges shows that Israel gradually became stronger and absorbed the Canaanites. By the time of King David, most people of the land regarded themselves as Israelites, although some distinct groups still remained (e.g., 2 Sam 5:6-8).
Meaning and Message
The book of Joshua emphasizes the fulfillment of God’s covenant promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The patriarchs had traversed the land as resident aliens; now their descendants occupied it as the beneficiaries of God’s faithfulness to his promise. Even the burials at the close of the book emphasize that point. Whereas Abraham had to buy a small parcel of land to bury Sarah, now Joseph, Joshua, and Eleazar were honored with burials in the territory God had given to their descendants.
The book of Joshua demonstrates that God speaks and acts with integrity and that he can be trusted to fulfill his promises. The book conveys this message in both subtle and obvious ways. The scouts’ faithfulness to Rahab and her family reflects and affirms the faithfulness of the God who had brought them to her house. The giving of Caleb’s inheritance at the beginning of the tribal allotments and the giving of Joshua’s at the end bear testimony to God’s recognition of those who remain faithful to him throughout their lifetime. Joshua also records that Israel constructed stone memorials throughout the country. These monuments served as visual aids to teach generations of Israelite children about God’s absolute faithfulness. These stone monuments eventually crumbled or were carried away for other uses, but the book of Joshua itself remains as an enduring memorial, still giving testimony of God’s goodness and faithfulness.
The book of Joshua also records some disturbing events. Israel destroyed Jericho and Ai and all their people. Many Israelites, including Achan and his family, died because of Achan’s sin. God fought the Canaanite coalitions that tried to prevent Israel from establishing themselves in the land. These and other episodes remind readers of the deadly seriousness of sin.
In a culture where women and their rights were held with little or no regard, Joshua records a different perspective. When the land was allocated among the clans of Manasseh, the daughters of Zelophehad received their father’s inheritance, as God had instructed. Rahab’s saving of the two young scouts in the dramatic opening episode of the book also provides a radically positive assessment of a woman’s place in God’s economy.
The book of Joshua has much for contemporary readers to ponder about God himself, the consequences of human good and evil, and God’s passionate commitment to human redemption and the restoration of the divine-human relationship.
Judg.1.1-21.25
The book of Judges tells the stories of the inspired leaders who rescued Israel from their enemies time after time. During this period, the people were frequently unfaithful to God’s covenant, and God allowed their enemies to oppress them. Israel repeatedly turned to the Lord for help, and the Lord repeatedly sent charismatic judges to deliver Israel. These powerful leaders did amazing things, but they were unable to transcend Israel’s anarchy and lawlessness. Israel needed a leader whose authority could give them national coherence and unity.
Setting
The period of the judges is best understood against the backdrop of its own age. Historians and sociologists have compared the book of Judges with the epics of Homer, the sagas of old Iceland, and the French La Chanson de Roland, each of which represents the “Heroic Age” in a civilization’s adolescence. During the times described in these works, unorthodox men and women marched to a different drum, exhibiting behavior at odds with accepted norms yet accomplishing great things.
After Moses died, the Israelites’ campaigns under Joshua provided the desert nomads with a settled land, but hardly a settled society. That would take hundreds of years and the emergence of a stable monarchy under King David. But Moses and Joshua did leave the Israelites with an organized society. According to the biblical text, the tribal structure was well established and the lands were clearly apportioned. A few central shrines (e.g., Gilgal and Shiloh) had emerged, and leaders such as priests, Levites, and tribal elders brought Israel a degree of order. The people continued to remember the old traditions—the covenant promise to Abraham, the sojourn in Egypt from which Israel had been rescued by divine strength, the desert wanderings, and the ratification of the covenant. But something was still lacking.
According to Judges, Israel’s shortcomings had two sources. First, the prologues (1:1–2:5 and 2:6–3:6) explain that the tribes failed to possess their allotted territories because they capitulated to the norms of Canaan rather than adhering to the divine covenant given under Moses. The second issue looms large in the epilogues (chs 17–21) and is summarized in the repeated sentence “In those days Israel had no king; all the people did whatever seemed right in their own eyes” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). The prologues highlight Israel’s unfaithfulness to God; the epilogues are concerned with a failed social structure. The age of heroes could not produce the stable political institutions required for implementing God’s rule over the children of Israel.
The book of Judges does not, however, reject the principle of charismatic leadership embodied in the judges. The judges’ inspiration came at God’s initiative and fulfilled God’s purpose in leading and saving Israel (see 2:16-19). The stories celebrate the principle of heroic leadership, making it clear that the Achilles’ heel of the era was not in the divinely inspired leaders but in the sinfulness of the people’s hearts, which, as suggested by the book of Judges, had to be addressed by a different form of governance.
Summary
Judges follows an A-B-A structure, beginning with two prologues. Each is introduced by the death of Joshua—a pivotal event in Israel’s national life—thus picking up the narrative from Joshua 24:28-31. The first prologue (Judg 1:1–2:5) recalls the failures of individual tribes to follow through on God’s covenant. By contenting themselves with partial occupation of the land, they demonstrated their disregard for the Lord’s promise and provoked the withdrawal of his protection (2:1-3).
The second prologue (2:6–3:6) turns from the failures of the tribes to introduce the individuals whom the Lord used to keep the flame of conquest and settlement alive in a chaotic time. The story moves from Joshua to the elders who outlived him but had experienced God’s power in the wilderness and conquest, and finally to the third generation “who did not acknowledge the Lord or remember the mighty things he had done for Israel” (2:10). The account then introduces the central feature of the book, the judges whom God raised up to rescue Israel and call them back to covenant obedience (2:16), the evidence of which would be faithful occupation of the Promised Land. Judges 3:1-6, like the close of the earlier prologue, informs readers in advance that the effort will end in failure.
The central section (3:7–16:31) contains a series of “cycles”—longer accounts of the six major judges (Othniel, Ehud, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson) and shorter accounts of the six minor judges (Shamgar, Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon). This section includes the rise of an anti-charismatic leader, Abimelech (ch 9), whose rule was like that of a king. Following Abimelech, the spiral is clearly downward. The figures at the beginning of the story are more ideal (Othniel to Gideon), while the characters toward the end are more questionable (Jephthah, Samson). In all, there were twelve judges, apparently representing each of the twelve tribes of Israel (see study note on 12:8). The inexorable march toward chaos throughout the book points to their need for a more centralized society.
Judges culminates in two epilogues (chs 17–18; 19–21) that highlight the historical and theological failure of Israel under the judges, and the ensuing spiritual and social chaos. The epilogues are marked by the summary refrain, “In those days Israel had no king,” to which is twice added, “all the people did whatever seemed right in their own eyes” (see 17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). This conclusion begs for a sequel in which a new approach to leadership reverses the declining effectiveness of individual charismatic leaders.
Authors and Date of Composition
Nothing is known about the author(s) or compiler(s) of Judges. The historical books (Joshua—2 Kings) are a connected narrative. Tradition tells us that various sources were combined into a theological narrative under the influence of Israel’s prophetic schools.
Evidence from the last chapter of this history (2 Kgs 25:27-30) suggests the exile to Babylon as a final date for the composition or collection of this material. Judges may have received its final form at the same time, although there is little in the book of Judges itself that points beyond the early monarchy. Judges knows nothing of a central shrine or national capital in Jerusalem; the social structures reflected in the book indicate a nation still struggling with issues of settlement and governance.
Chronology of the Judges
One long-standing question has been how to fit the accounts of the judges into the chronology of the period from Joshua to Saul. Dating and ordering the judges is notoriously difficult; the results depend to a great extent on whether the Exodus is seen as having occurred in the 1400s or in the 1200s BC. The longer chronology (based on an earlier date for the Exodus) harmonizes well with Judges 11:26 and 1 Kings 6:1. The shorter chronology (based on a later date for the Exodus) seems to fit better with external evidence (such as archaeological findings), but it forces the period of the judges into a relatively short time frame.
The people of Israel entered the Promised Land of Canaan in either 1406 or 1230 BC, depending on the date of the Exodus (see Exodus Book Introduction, “The Date of the Exodus”). The people of Israel then lived in the land and experienced cycles of oppression by neighboring countries and rescue through various judges until the prophet Samuel anointed Saul as king of all Israel around 1050 BC.
The accounts of the judges themselves are told as a sequence, giving the impression that one judge followed another. Most of the accounts of the judges also provide chronological indications, specifying how long oppressors dominated God’s people and the period of peace that followed their rescue by each judge. However, simply adding these numbers produces a sum of years that significantly exceeds the time available in this period of history.
A solution to this difficulty is to realize that the judges did not always work sequentially but sometimes overlapped with one another. For example, Judges 10:7 states, “So the Lord burned with anger against Israel, and he turned them over to the Philistines and the Ammonites.” It follows that Jephthah freed his people from the Ammonite threat in the northeast while Samson began to rescue Israel from Philistia in the southwest.
In certain cases, the text does point to a sequence between judges. For instance, Shamgar judged “after Ehud” (3:31) and Deborah “after Ehud’s death” (4:1; see also 5:6). Nonetheless, Judges does not provide these types of connections between most of the judges, and most of the judges held influence over only a limited part of the land of Israel. The period of the judges was characterized not only by moral depravity and spiritual darkness, but also by political fragmentation. None of the judges had a national following—each was followed by only a few tribes at most, usually those in the vicinity of the judge’s hometown.
When we realize that the judges were local and that their time periods often overlapped, we can conclude that the period of the judges thus fits into history.
Meaning and Message
What kind of leadership does God’s work require, and where can God’s people find such leaders? Judges gives a partial answer to both questions but stops short of providing the final word.
Judges celebrates charismatic (gifted, inspired) leadership while recognizing its limitations. One enduring biblical principle of leadership is that God raises up heroes and fills them with his Spirit to rescue his people. Moses and Joshua had been such rescuer-leaders, and Saul and David would be as well. The heroes of Judges had flaws, but God used them nonetheless. A true charismatic leader is a man or woman who is given a divine gift (Greek charisma) that equips for the task.
A second kind of leadership, often called “official,” has authority that does not come directly from God but flows from an office or appointment. While the Israelite judges were classic charismatic leaders, the kings represented official authority in the military and political sphere. Prophets and priests often presented the same contrast in Israel’s spiritual life—generally speaking, the prophets were inspired leaders while the priests were official leaders.
Which type of leader has God’s approval? How do those who want to follow the Lord faithfully know which structures of leadership are worthy of obedience? The book of Judges demonstrates God’s unmistakable commitment to raise up powerfully endowed, spirit-filled leaders appropriate for the occasion. The practice of charismatic leadership, despite its limitations, is never set aside in biblical narrative.
Even in the transition to kingship in 1 and 2 Samuel, there is ambivalence toward the new form of official leadership. Kingship began with Saul, a charismatic judge-king in whom the weaknesses of both systems combined to bring about his downfall. Charismatic leadership is then affirmed and renewed in the life of David, a great hero-king. David was so distinctly a charismatic king that it is initially difficult to distinguish him from a successful judge. What answers the plaintive cry of Judges is not the rejection of charismatic leaders but the addition of God’s covenant with his chosen king, David (2 Sam 7:1-29). God’s ideal is in the combination of inspired and official leadership. Israel’s judges and kings, with all their limitations, look forward to Jesus, the perfect charismatic king, who combines in his person the qualities lacking in each of his predecessors.
Ruth.1.1-4.22
Ruth was a dedicated daughter-in-law to Naomi, her bereaved mother-in-law. Boaz was the kindly owner of a busy farm and a close relative of Naomi. In this story, there is loss and loyalty, a homecoming, a secret midnight meeting, a public transfer of property, a marriage, and a child. The book of Ruth tells a tale of God’s love in the lives of ordinary people.
Setting
The events in Ruth took place around 1100 BC, during the period of the judges. Whereas the book of Judges records violent, momentous events, Ruth shows a peaceful, ordinary side of life at the time.
During this period, Israel had few political structures. The average person focused more on tribal and clan ties than on national identity. Most families in Israel depended on their own crops and animals for food and for other necessities. Israel’s hill country was fertile, but the water supply was variable, and a couple years of low rainfall could cause famine.
Summary
When famine came to Bethlehem, Elimelech moved to Moab with his wife, Naomi, and their two sons, who married Moabite women. Elimelech died in Moab, then the young men also died, leaving Naomi destitute. Hearing that the famine in Bethlehem had ended, Naomi decided to return home. Ruth, one of Naomi’s Moabite daughters-in-law, declared her loyalty to Naomi. The two of them set out together and arrived in Bethlehem at the beginning of the spring barley harvest. To obtain food for the coming year, Ruth went out to glean, beginning in Boaz’s field. When he learned who she was, Boaz instructed his workers to be generous to Ruth.
Hearing of Boaz’s kindness, Naomi sent Ruth to the threshing floor one night to meet him privately. Ruth asked Boaz to act as her family redeemer—which would include marrying her. Boaz knew that a closer relative had the first right to act as family redeemer, but Boaz promised to do so if that man refused. He went to the town gate to arrange the matter, and the other man declined. So Boaz married Ruth, who bore a son named Obed.
Having a grandson guaranteed Naomi’s security in old age and brought back what she thought she had lost forever. Obed became the grandfather of David, Israel’s greatest king. The book of Ruth ends with a genealogy of ten generations, from Perez, the son of Judah, to David.
Authorship and Date
Some biblical scholars have questioned the historicity of Ruth and proposed that it might be fictional. As biblical scholars discover more about ancient history, ancient writing conventions, and everyday life in the ancient Near East, however, we can readily conclude that Ruth and other accounts from Israel’s early periods are firmly grounded in history. We don’t know who wrote Ruth, and archaeologists may never recover direct physical evidence of Ruth, Boaz, and Naomi, but the account reflects its time and place in a way that supports its historicity.
Meaning and Message
God usually works in the ordinary events of everyday life. Miracles do happen, but God regularly accomplishes his purposes and blesses his people through routine occurrences. If we learn faithfulness in the everyday, we are equipped to be faithful when crises come.
Ruth contains a number of spoken blessings. God’s people have the privilege of blessing each other in God’s name. We often help fulfill those blessings, as Naomi and Boaz fulfilled the blessings they gave to Ruth.
Naomi felt abandoned by God; but God had not abandoned Naomi, and by the end of the book Naomi knew that God had restored more to her than she could have dreamed. God is trustworthy in our darkest hours.
Faith in God involves willingness to take risks. Ruth’s committment to follow the God of Naomi was made in the midst of immense uncertainty. Boaz took the risk of faithfulness and generosity, and he was richly rewarded.
The everyday and the ordinary can have breathtaking eternal impact. Ruth’s and Boaz’s daily faithfulness in the rhythms of farming, marriage, childbirth, and parenthood resulted in eternal blessings that have continued to multiply through King David and his descendant Jesus Christ.
1Sam.1.1-31.13
The right leadership can give people a sense of safety when neighboring nations are hostile. In Samuel’s time, Israel faced external threats and internal discord, and the judges only provided a fleeting sense of security. Israel wanted a king. The book of 1 Samuel records Israel’s transition from a federation of tribes to a centralized kingdom. Saul, Israel’s first king, did not remain faithful to God. But then God chose David as king, and God’s plan to save Israel—and the world—began to unfold.
Setting
Moses had predicted that the people of Israel would ask for a king to reign over them (Deut 17:14-20). God spelled out the requirements for a king (Deut 17:15) but also warned of the evils commonly associated with human kings. A king would want many horses, numerous wives, and large sums of gold and silver (Deut 17:16-17). To mitigate these tendencies, God instructed that each king of Israel must study God’s law (Deut 17:18-20).
Throughout the days of the judges, Israel’s tribes lacked unity (see Judg 17–21). By Samuel’s time, Israel was looking for a king to unite the nation and protect it from internal and external threats.
Gideon, who judged Israel about one hundred years before the time of Samuel, had acted a lot like a king. Gideon rejected the invitation to inaugurate a hereditary dynasty (Judg 8:22-23), but he began to act like a king: He accumulated gold and used it to build a religious idol (Judg 8:24-27), he took many wives (Judg 8:30), and he even named one of his sons Abimelech, which means “my father is king” (Judg 8:31). Gideon acted like the kind of king God wanted Israel never to have. A monarchy would give an imperfect human even more control than the judges exercised. 1 Samuel records the trouble that surrounded Israel’s first king, Saul, and begins to outline God’s unfolding plan to establish an eternal kingship through the line of David.
Summary
In 1 Samuel 1–7, Samuel emerges as a judge and prophet of God. Samuel was born to a devout woman named Hannah, who had previously been barren (1:1-23). As a young child, Samuel, a Levite, (1 Chr 6:33-34) became an apprentice in the Tabernacle under the supervision of Eli the priest (1:24–3:18). Likely trained to be a Tabernacle assistant, Samuel instead became a prophet with a growing reputation (3:19–4:1a). Evidently, he was not yet prominent in Israel’s national life when the Philistines harassed the Israelites and captured the Ark of the Covenant (4:1–7:2), as he is absent from that narrative. In chapter 7, Samuel reappears, calling Israel to repentance; and acting as a judge, he drove out the Philistine oppressors.
Samuel’s leadership as Levite, prophet, and judge spanned all spheres of public life. Yet his sons did not prove worthy of carrying on in his place (8:1-3), so Israel asked Samuel to appoint a king to lead them, just like the other nations. Samuel was outspoken in his opposition (8:10-21), yet the Lord instructed Samuel to anoint Saul as king (chs 9–10). In his farewell address, Samuel reminded the Israelites of God’s power and care for them (ch 12). He wanted them to realize their sin in asking for a king rather than trusting in the Lord.
Initially, Saul was a good king. He defeated the neighboring Ammonites and saved the city of Jabesh-gilead from doom (ch 11). But Saul soon proved, by his disobedience to God, that he was unworthy to be Israel’s king (chs 13, 15). By contrast, Saul’s noble son Jonathan seemed to be an ideal successor (14:1-52). But Jonathan would not succeed Saul, because God had different plans (chs 16–31). God instructed Samuel to anoint David secretly as Saul’s successor while Saul was still king (16:1-13).
Saul’s relationship with David was good at first, thanks in part to David’s musical gifts (16:14-23). However, David’s success with Goliath (17:1-58) made Saul jealous (18:6-16), and Saul tried to eliminate the threat David posed to his kingship. He brought David into his family by marriage to provide greater opportunities to kill him (18:17-29). He attacked David directly (19:1-10) and executed anybody who harbored David (chs 21–22). Yet all of Saul’s attempts to eliminate David proved unsuccessful.
Both Saul and Jonathan died in battle against the Philistines (31:1-6). This paved the way for David to begin his reign, though not without further difficulties (see 2 Sam 1:1–5:5).
Authorship
The title “Samuel” comes from the important role Samuel played in Israel’s transition to a monarchy, not from the book’s authorship. Samuel could have written parts of 1 Samuel, but he could not have written any part of 2 Samuel, as his death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1. The final editor of 1 Samuel is never identified.
Composition
The books of 1–2 Samuel were originally one book. The translators of the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament) divided it into two books, 1–2 Kingdoms. Later Hebrew tradition also divided the book but retained the name Samuel, as do most English versions.
Some scholars contend that 1–2 Samuel (along with 1–2 Kings, also one book originally) were created from a variety of sources during or after the Babylonian Exile (586–538 BC). Multiple sources were doubtless used in 1–2 Samuel—for example, Samuel, Nathan, and Gad all chronicled events from the life of David (1 Chronicles 29:29). The inspired author of 1–2 Samuel would have made use of such information. However, the book also could have been near its final form during or shortly after the reign of Solomon (971–931 BC).
Shortly after Judah’s exile to Babylon, 1–2 Samuel was incorporated into the larger body of material that also includes Joshua, Judges, and 1–2 Kings. This section of Scripture traces Israel’s sacred history, beginning with blessing (conquering the land) and ending with judgment (losing the land). It explains to an audience in exile how their grave misfortune came about.
Manuscripts
The text of 1–2 Samuel that is found in the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint, 200s BC) is different in many places from the Hebrew (Masoretic) text (around AD 1000). The Hebrew texts of Samuel in the Dead Sea Scrolls (around 250–50 BC) found at Qumran agree in some places with the Septuagint, in other places with the Masoretic Text. In still other places the Dead Sea texts have their own readings. Readers will encounter notes such as “Hebrew lacks . . . ” or “Greek reads . . . ” more frequently in 1–2 Samuel than in other Old Testament books. However, few of these textual variants significantly alter the meaning.
Meaning and Message
The emphasis on kingship in 1 Samuel first appears in Hannah’s prayer (see 2:10). The idea that Israel would have a king was as old as God’s promise to Abraham and Sarah (Gen 17:6, 16). God neither mandated nor forbade a monarchy but only spelled out the excesses from which Israel’s kings must abstain (see Deut 17:14-20).
During the period of the judges, Israel changed dramatically for the worse—both spiritually and nationally. This steady disintegration reaches a horrible climax in Judges 17–21. The book of Judges hints that, to help correct this decline, Israel needed a king. Israel’s greatest threat was not the Philistines or any other predatory neighbor but Israel itself and its breaking of the covenant. Israel needed a king to guard the covenant, which the pre-monarchical order had put at risk.
If the king’s responsibility was to administer the covenant (Deut 17:18-20), the prophet’s duty was to interpret its stipulations. For this reason, the prophet Samuel protected his divinely authorized claim over kings with a holy zeal. Not only did Samuel anoint Israel’s first two kings (1 Sam 10:1; 16:13), but he was also compelled to censure the king when he stepped outside of covenantal boundaries (13:8-15; 15:10-33).
Saul did not have the character or integrity needed to lead Israel into a successful, God-honoring monarchy. Saul was not fated to fall, as though he had no control over his decisions. In fact, God wanted him to be a good king and made every provision for that to happen (such as changing his heart and giving him his Spirit). But God does not force righteousness, holiness, or obedience. His grace is persuasive but not coercive.
Despite the deep disappointments of the era of the judges and the early monarchy, God’s sovereign control over Israel’s history is demonstrated in several ways: (1) A once-barren woman gave birth to Samuel, God’s agent for the transition to monarchy (ch 1); (2) a devastating Philistine victory became a Philistine defeat without human participation (chs 4–6); (3) the king whom the people demanded became God’s anointed (chs 8–10); (4) this king was rejected by God for his unfaithfulness (chs 13, 15); and (5) the eighth son of an obscure family, a man after God’s own heart, was chosen as the future king of Israel (ch 16).
Unlike Saul’s rule, David’s kingship over Israel lasted, and one of his descendants later became the sovereign King of the whole world. Jesus is the final heir to David’s throne (John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 11:15). He perpetuates his ancestor’s virtues but never exhibits his flaws. Jesus is the world’s perfect and eternal Shepherd and King.
2Sam.1.1-24.25
David’s ascension to power over all the tribes of Israel was lined with violence, politics, and intrigue. David was far from a perfect king—he committed adultery, then committed murder to cover it up, and chaos ensued in his family and the nation. Yet God was eternally committed to David and his descendants. He protected David during the many challenges to his authority and mercifully forgave and restored him when he sinned.
Setting
While Saul was still reigning, Samuel anointed David as Israel’s next king (1 Sam 16:1-13), but it was several years before David assumed the throne. Throughout most of this period, David was the object of Saul’s jealousy and wrath. Saul tried many times to kill David, but David never reciprocated when he had the chance. Instead, David trusted in the Lord’s plan and timing.
David’s reign brought significant changes to Israel, both internally and externally. Internally, the nation began to develop a new awareness of itself as a unified nation. During Saul’s reign and the early part of David’s reign, the nation was not completely unified, and the twelve tribes still primarily found their identity at the tribal level rather than as a nation. By the end of David’s reign, a sense of national unity was in place that set the stage for the glory days of King Solomon.
Externally, Israel’s position in relation to its neighbors improved significantly during David’s reign. Most notably, the constant threat posed by the Philistines, so obvious in the book of Judges and throughout Saul’s reign, largely vanished as the result of David’s skillful leadership (see, e.g., 2 Sam 5:17-25; 21:15-22; 23:9-17). David’s reign brought peace and stability to Israel’s borders.
Summary
For 7½ years after the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (1:1-27), David reigned as king of Judah only. For two years of that time, Saul’s only surviving son, Ishbosheth, was king of the northern tribes, and this led to a murderous civil war. David became progressively stronger while Ishbosheth became weaker. In the end, Ishbosheth and his top commander, Abner, were assassinated against David’s wishes (3:22–4:12). Following Ishbosheth’s death, the leaders of the northern tribes pledged their loyalty to David. David immediately relocated his capital from Hebron to the more centrally located Jerusalem, driving out its Jebusite inhabitants (5:6-16).
Jerusalem was more than David’s political capital. By bringing the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem, David made it Israel’s spiritual capital as well (6:1-15). Shortly thereafter, God made an eternal covenant with David and his descendants (7:1-29). In these early years, David enjoyed success on every side (8:1-18; 10:1-19) and fulfilled his vow to treat the descendants of Saul and Jonathan kindly (9:1-13).
Then David made the worst mistake of his life: He brought Bathsheba, who was another man’s wife, to his house for sexual intimacy (11:1-5). She became pregnant, and David arranged for her husband’s murder (11:6-27). God was angry with David’s actions and chastised him (12:1-12). Although David repented and experienced God’s forgiveness, the child conceived in the affair died (12:13-23). Yet David remained God’s chosen king (12:24-31).
From this point forward, problems compounded for David. Amnon, one of David’s sons, raped his half sister Tamar, and her brother Absalom avenged the act (13:1-39). Later, Absalom tried to overthrow and replace David, but he was killed in the coup (14:1–19:43). Sheba, a Benjamite, also led a revolt against David but was defeated and executed (20:1-26).
As king, David twice acted to allay God’s wrath against the nation (21:1-22; 24:1-25). In the second instance, David built an altar in Jerusalem (24:18-25) on what became the site of the Temple (see 1 Chr 21:18–22:1). Sandwiched between these two episodes are passages that celebrate God’s power working through David and descriptions of the loyalty and heroism of David’s special warriors (22:1–23:39).
Authorship
The same anonymous author who wrote 1 Samuel probably also wrote 2 Samuel (see 1 Samuel Book Introduction, “Authorship”).
Historical Issues
Evidence for David. For a long time, David’s name had not been discovered in any document from antiquity outside of the Bible. This led some critical scholars to claim that David and his story were fictitious. However, in 1993, archaeologists working at Tell Dan in northern Israel found an inscription in Aramaic about Hazael, king of Syria (around 842–800 BC), who was celebrating a military victory over Israel and Judah. The inscription reads, “I put Jeho . . . , son of . . . ruler of Israel, and . . .iahu, son of . . .g of the house of David to death” (ellipses represent portions of the text illegible in the inscription). This inscription provides evidence of David’s existence and acknowledgment that he founded a dynasty in Judah.
Violence. To a greater degree than any other biblical book, 2 Samuel tells of murders and executions, most notably those involving David’s political rivals and their supporters (Saul and Jonathan, 1:1-15; Abner, 3:30; Ishbosheth, 4:6-8; Absalom, 18:14-15; other male descendants of Saul, 21:8-9; Amasa, 20:10; Sheba, 20:21-22). However, the narrator is careful to show that David was not responsible for these murders. Contrary to the claims of some (see 16:5-8), David could not be accused of murderous political ambition. David was guilty of murder only in the case of Uriah. Without question, this was a horrible sin, but it was devoid of political motive.
David had no involvement in the many murders surrounding his rise to power. He was not a usurper who violently eliminated the previous royal family. In fact, he genuinely lamented the deaths of Saul and Jonathan and ordered the executions of those who killed Saul and Ishbosheth (1:1-16; 4:12). David had deep respect for Saul as the Lord’s anointed king. Although David was aware that God had anointed him to replace Saul, he refused to take the matter into his own hands.
Meaning and Message
The book of 2 Samuel reports how God brought the private anointing of David as king (1 Sam 16:1-13) to public fruition. Moreover, God made a covenant with David to solidify his commitment to David’s dynasty.
God’s covenant with David bears significant similarities to the covenant with Abraham. Both include promises of great fame (Gen 12:2; 2 Sam 7:9) and of rest from their enemies (Gen 15:18-21; 2 Sam 7:10). Both are binding forever (Gen 13:15; 2 Sam 7:16), and much of the land God promised to Abraham and his descendants (Gen 15:18) was acquired through David’s expansion of his empire (2 Sam 5:17-25; 8:1-14; 10:1-9).
God’s commitment to David was crucial to David’s successes—despite civil war, revolts, the murderous ambition of some loyal subjects, and his personal failures. His shortcomings—particularly his adultery with Bathsheba and the murder of Uriah—could lead one to wonder whether David would become like Saul, rejected by God and replaced by another. God certainly did punish David when he sinned (12:1–20:26; 24:1-25). Yet God remained committed to David and to his dynasty (7:14-16). God’s commitment, rather than David’s merit, explains his success.
Kingship was central in God’s plan for his people and his creation. God’s commitment to David points beyond David and his immediate descendants to a distant son, Jesus Christ. The New Testament both begins (Matt 1:1) and ends (Rev 22:16) by focusing on Jesus, the Eternal King, as the descendant of David.
1Kgs.1.1-22.53
Solomon’s kingdom was the pinnacle of Israel’s glory. “King Solomon became richer and wiser than any other king on earth” (1 Kgs 10:23). The Queen of Sheba confirmed the glory of Solomon’s kingdom, saying, “Everything I heard in my country about your achievements and wisdom is true! I didn’t believe what was said until I arrived here and saw it with my own eyes” (10:6-7). First Kings celebrates the splendor of Solomon’s kingdom. But Solomon’s reign also illustrates the dangers of spiritual infidelity, and 1 Kings warns about the results of preoccupation with luxury, fame, self, and security. It is a timeless warning to us all.
Setting
At the height of his power, Solomon administered a kingdom that stretched “from the Euphrates River in the north to the land of the Philistines and the border of Egypt in the south” (4:21). Solomon’s power and wealth brought him in contact with many surrounding nations—especially the important maritime city-state of Tyre and the age-old empire of Egypt.
The mid-900s BC was an ideal time for Solomon’s kingdom to expand, for the traditional political powers of the area were in decline. The strong Hittite kingdom to the north had broken up into a number of small states. In Mesopotamia, years of struggle with the Arameans and the Hittites had weakened Assyria, which remained weak until the accession of Ashur-dan II (934–912 BC). In the south, Egypt’s presence in Canaan had weakened during the 21st dynasty (1069–945 BC). Egypt would not make an effective military comeback until the rule of the 22nd dynasty pharaoh Shoshenq I (Shishak, 945–924 BC).
Unfortunately, Solomon’s foreign diplomacy involved marriages with the daughters of foreign kings. This was a common way to cement alliances in the ancient Near East, but it was spiritually disastrous, for “in Solomon’s old age, they turned his heart to worship other gods instead of being completely faithful to the Lord his God” (11:4).
Tensions that had been smoldering between the northern and southern Hebrew tribes surfaced with Solomon’s death in 931 BC. The resulting schism restructured the kingdom into Israel (the northern ten tribes) and Judah (the remaining two southern tribes). Israel and Judah skirmished repeatedly during the era of the first two northern dynasties and the reigns of Judah’s first three kings (931~874 BC). The hostility subsided when King Ahab of Israel and King Jehoshaphat of Judah found a common cause against the Arameans (chs 20, 22).
The Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah were increasingly entangled by the expansionist ambitions of their neighbors. They were invaded by Shoshenq I of Egypt in 926 BC, and throughout the 800s BC they faced the constant menace of the Arameans and the rising power of Assyria. During the reigns of the Assyrian kings Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) and Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC), Assyrian troops moved steadily westward to the Mediterranean Sea. At the famous Battle of Qarqar (853 BC), a coalition of western allies, including Israel’s King Ahab, withstood the Assyrian king Shalmaneser and temporarily sidetracked Assyria’s advance.
During this time, the two Hebrew kingdoms struggled spiritually. Israel stopped worshiping the Lord at Solomon’s Temple, and Jeroboam I, the first king of the northern kingdom of Israel (931–910 BC), instituted apostate religious practices that led the northern kingdom astray (see 2 Kgs 17:21-23). Judah’s first two kings, Rehoboam and Abijah, lapsed spiritually, while the subsequent two kings, Asa and Jehoshaphat, maintained greater, though not perfect, spiritual fidelity (1 Kgs 15:11; 22:43).
Summary
Beginning with King David’s last days, 1 Kings describes the establishment of Solomon’s glorious empire (971–931 BC) and the events that subsequently divided the kingdom in two (the kingdom of Israel in the north and the kingdom of Judah in the south). The book then traces the varying fortunes of the two kingdoms to about 853 BC, into the reign of Ahaziah in Israel (853–852 BC).
The first eleven chapters center on King Solomon, recounting both his fabulous reign and his later spiritual compromise. Solomon’s story begins and ends in controversy. Solomon was David’s chosen successor, but his older brother Adonijah attempted to seize the throne (1:1–2:46). Solomon triumphed over Adonijah’s rival claim, then used his God-given wisdom to reorganize the government and make it more efficient. He facilitated the kingdom’s commercial expansion on land and sea and undertook extensive building projects, including the marvelous Temple and the palace complex. Toward the end of his reign, however, Solomon’s spiritual decline (11:1-13) and oppressive administrative measures (e.g., 5:13-18) incited political adversaries both inside and outside the country (11:14-40).
God appeared three times to Solomon, giving us a glimpse of his personal spiritual journey. The first time, early in Solomon’s reign, God granted his request for wisdom to rule the kingdom (3:5-15), which resulted in great prosperity and honor (3:16–8:66). After Solomon finished building the Temple and palace, God visited him a second time to remind him that his continued success would depend on spiritual fidelity (9:1-9). However, Solomon’s great fame (9:10–10:29) led him into foreign alliances, cemented by customary marriages with the daughters of foreign kings. Solomon’s resulting spiritual compromise eventually led him so far as to sponsor the worship of pagan deities (11:1-8). God visited Solomon a third and final time; this time he rebuked Solomon for his failure to honor the covenant. Solomon’s unfaithfulness would ultimately cause the kingdom’s division after his death (11:9-13).
The second section of the book (12:1–16:26) demonstrates that God’s judgment came quickly after Solomon’s death. At the beginning of the reign of King Rehoboam, the northern tribes requested relief from forced labor and heavy taxation. Rehoboam rebuffed their request and antagonized them, so the northern tribes rebelled and established the kingdom of Israel in the north, with Jeroboam I as king. Rehoboam remained on the throne of Judah, now a separate kingdom, in the south (12:1-24). During the following era, Israel’s first two dynasties (Jeroboam I to Tibni) spiritually degraded the northern kingdom, while the kings of Judah degraded the southern kingdom. Political instability marked the northern kingdom, with royal assassinations, contests for power, and the establishment of Israel’s notorious third dynasty, founded by King Omri, who was one of the most powerful and evil kings of Israel (16:25-26).
The final section of 1 Kings is primarily devoted to the reign of Omri’s son Ahab (16:29–22:40). Israel had begun worshiping the Canaanite storm-god Baal, so the Lord commissioned Elijah to confront Ahab and to demonstrate the Lord’s power, showing that he alone is God (17:1–18:46). Elijah then fled from the wrath of Queen Jezebel, but God reclaimed and recommissioned him, with Elisha as his successor (19:1-21).
On the political front, King Ahab faced repeated challenges from the Aramean king Ben-hadad, against whom Ahab fought three campaigns (20:1-25, 26-43; 22:1-40), the last of which cost Ahab his life. Between the second and third campaigns, Ahab, aided by his ruthless wife Jezebel, murdered an innocent man named Naboth and confiscated his property (21:1-29).
God’s prophets figured prominently in the events of Ahab’s reign. In Ahab’s first two campaigns against the Arameans, an unnamed prophet first counseled the king (20:22) and then rebuked him (20:35-43). The prophet Elijah later censured Ahab’s seizure of Naboth’s vineyard (21:1-29). Then, before Ahab’s third battle against the Arameans, the prophet Micaiah warned of Ahab’s impending death (22:5-28).
The book of 1 Kings closes with a brief word concerning the character and reign of Judah’s King Jehoshaphat (22:41-50) and introduces Ahab’s successor, Ahaziah (22:51-53), whose story begins 2 Kings.
Authorship and Composition
The books of 1–2 Kings reflect the coherent perspective of a single unknown author, whom Jewish tradition identifies as Jeremiah (Baba Batra 15a). The author witnessed firsthand the fall of Jerusalem and was well acquainted with sources that enabled him to compose a rich history of Solomon’s reign and the divided monarchy. Available to the author were official archives of the palace and Temple and records kept in various prophetic centers. He skillfully weaved these sources into a unified presentation, displaying a central concern regarding his people’s repeated failure to honor their covenant relationship with God.
It is uncertain whether the author was still alive and wrote the final appendix concerning Jehoiachin’s release (561 BC; 2 Kgs 25:27-30; cp. Jer 52:31-34). If not, these verses were appended by someone well acquainted with 1–2 Kings and of a kindred spirit with the primary author.
The books of 1–2 Kings cover essentially the same time period as 2 Chronicles. Accordingly, there are numerous parallel passages with similar wording. But the authors had different purposes in writing, and these differences can be highlighted by comparing the various parallel passages.
Date
Because 2 Kings records the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2 Kgs 24:18–25:21), the composition of 1–2 Kings must have been completed afterward.
The dating of the reigns of various kings and the chronological arrangement of 1–2 Kings remain somewhat problematic, but the general dating of the period seems clear. The basic period for 1 Kings stretches from around 973 BC (including approximately the last two years of David’s reign in Jerusalem, 2 Sam 5:4-5) to around 853 BC, during the reigns of Jehoshaphat of Judah (872–848 BC) and Ahaziah of Israel (853–852 BC). Second Kings picks up where 1 Kings left off (originally, 1–2 Kings was one book). The final appendix to 2 Kings (2 Kgs 25:27-30) was written shortly after the death of Nebuchadnezzar II in 562 BC.
Chronology
The dates for the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah are determined by comparing biblical data with information from other sources from the period, including historical annals and records of astronomical phenomena. The data frequently highlights the practice of co-regency, whereby a reigning king designated his son as both heir apparent and co-ruler. This practice was common in both Israel and Judah. Hence, the dating of the various kings is not necessarily sequential, but contains a certain extent of overlap. While ascertaining precise dates across the monarchical period is complex, the remarkable harmony between the records of Assyria, Babylon, Aram, Egypt, and Israel highlights the historical reliability of the biblical records.
Meaning and Message
The primary concern of 1 Kings is Israel’s spiritual condition: How well did Israel’s rulers and people keep God’s covenants? God’s special covenant with David had conditions for blessing Israel’s king and his kingdom (2 Sam 7:12-16; Ps 89:20-37). God’s three appearances to Solomon highlight the potential for a successful and meaningful spiritual life, as well as the tragic consequences of spiritual infidelity and relying upon expediency. Each succeeding king is evaluated by his faithfulness to God—by his success or failure in keeping God’s covenants.
The book of 1 Kings emphasizes the role of God’s prophets in advising, admonishing, and warning the kings. While particular attention is devoted to Elijah’s ministry (1 Kgs 17:1–19:21; 21:1-29), God also works through other prophets to claim his people’s loyalty.
The spiritual odysseys of Israel’s kings and prophets challenge all of God’s people to faithful devotion and service. Israel’s frequent preference for what is tangible and expedient reminds us to “keep away from anything that might take God’s place in [our] hearts”(1 Jn 5:21). Like the prophets of old, God’s servants today are to proclaim the necessity of worshiping God alone.
2Kgs.1.1-25.30
The book of 2 Kings is filled with leaders who did not learn from the past. By virtue of their spiritual failure, these kings brought doom upon themselves and their nation. However, there are also sparkling examples of people who put God and his word first and enjoyed the blessings God promised. Reading the accounts of the kings’ lives inspires us to avoid their mistakes and to enjoy the blessings that God promises to those who love and serve him.
Setting
The book of 2 Kings continues the story of Israel’s divided monarchy, picking up where 1 Kings ends, with Ahaziah reigning over the northern kingdom of Israel and Jehoshaphat ruling in the southern kingdom of Judah. The account traces the fortunes of the two kingdoms to their respective ends—the northern kingdom in 722 BC, the southern kingdom in 586 BC.
Summary
The book of 2 Kings is structured around the reigns of the kings of Israel and Judah. Four different periods are covered: (1) the closing years of the northern kingdom’s third dynasty (853–841 BC, 1:1–9:37), (2) the era of the northern kingdom’s fourth dynasty (841–752 BC, 10:1–15:12), (3) the period of the northern kingdom’s decline and fall (752–722 BC, 15:13–17:41), and (4) the final era of the southern kingdom (722–586 BC, 18:1–25:30).
The book begins with an accident that caused the death of King Ahaziah of Israel (1:1-18) and with the closing event of Elijah’s life, when God took him into heaven (2:1-12). The prophetic mantle passed to Elisha, whose miracles and advice occupy the next several chapters (2:12–8:15; see 9:1-10).
The reigns of kings Jehoram and Ahaziah of Judah (8:16-29) bring the account to the pivotal year of 841 BC, when Jehu killed kings Joram and Ahaziah. Jehu also executed Jezebel, the surviving members of Ahab’s family, and the officials who worshiped Baal (9:11–10:29). So Jehu’s twenty-eight-year reign began (10:30-36). At the same time Athaliah (11:1-20) usurped the throne of Judah and reigned for six years until those loyal to David’s line installed young Joash as king (12:1-21).
The twin kingdoms enjoyed prosperity for a time (14:23–15:7), but the northern kingdom continued to do evil and entered its decline: Zechariah’s assassination (15:8-12) was followed by the short reigns of Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah, and Hoshea (15:13–17:2). Hoshea, Israel’s last king (732–722 BC), foolishly placed his confidence in Egypt and rebelled against Assyria, bringing about the capture of Samaria and the end of the northern kingdom in 722 BC (17:3-6). The author then evaluates the reasons for Israel’s fall and gives an account of Samaria’s repopulation (17:7-41).
The final section of 2 Kings (18:1–25:30) deals with the fortunes of Judah. Hezekiah is remembered for trusting the Lord while under pressure (18:5-6; see 18:13–20:11), and Josiah earns praise for his devotion to the law of the Lord (23:19; see 22:8–23:25). However, even these two kings made critical mistakes (20:12-19; 23:29-30; see 2 Chr 35:20-25).
Following Josiah’s death, the final kings of Judah did what was evil in the Lord’s sight, and the southern kingdom was ravaged and finally destroyed by King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (2 Kgs 23:31–25:21). God’s prophesied judgment had come (see Jer 38:17-23), and the glorious kingdom of Israel passed into the realm of memory.
The book of 2 Kings closes with two appended notes. The first deals with events in Judah after the fall of Jerusalem (2 Kgs 25:22-26). The second describes the later release of Jehoiachin in Babylon (25:27-30).
Authorship and Date
The book of 2 Kings is a continuation of 1 Kings, written by the same author, whose precise identity is unknown. He was well acquainted with sources that enabled him to compose a detailed history of Israel’s divided monarchy, and he had insight to evaluate the reasons for successes and failures on the basis of the people’s response to the Mosaic covenant. His intimate acquaintance with Judah’s later history indicates that he may have lived in or near Jerusalem and may have been an eyewitness to many of the events that brought about the city’s fall. Whether he was still alive to write the final appendix about Jehoiachin’s release (561 BC, 25:25-30) is uncertain. If not, these verses were added by someone well acquainted with 2 Kings and of a kindred spirit with the primary writer. One tradition holds that the single author of 1–2 Kings was Jeremiah and that he was taken to Babylon during Nebuchadnezzar’s return from a campaign in Egypt (around 568 BC) and lived there well into his nineties.
Based on information in the closing chapters, the final composition of 2 Kings most likely took place shortly after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC, with the final appendix to the book added shortly after Nebuchadnezzar II’s death in 562 BC.
Chronology
Second Kings is filled with chronological information about the kings of Israel and Judah, but none of this information gives us absolute dates. We obtain absolute dates by comparing Israel’s records with the records of surrounding nations (Assyria, Babylon, and Egypt) and with astronomical calculations. Remarkable harmony is found among the records, which serves as evidence that Israel’s accounts are historically accurate and precise.
Meaning and Message
Each king of the divided monarchy is evaluated on the basis of his faithfulness (or lack thereof) to God. They either “did what was pleasing in the Lord’s sight” or “did what was evil in the Lord’s sight.”
The kings of Israel were consistently evil. They “followed the example of Jeroboam son of Nebat, continuing the sins that Jeroboam had led Israel to commit” (13:2, 11; 14:24; 15:9; 17:2). Many of the kings of Judah receive similar censure (see e.g., 8:18). Manasseh, in particular, is condemned for his rampant idolatry and apostasy (21:2-9), and his example is followed by several kings after him (21:20; 23:32, 37; 24:9, 19).
Several kings of Judah are commended, however, for doing “what was pleasing in the Lord’s sight” (12:2; 14:3; 15:3, 34; 18:3; 22:2). Such men were concerned for the upkeep and repair of the Temple (12:6-16; 22:3-7) and for obedience to the precepts of God’s word (18:6; 22:8-13; 23:1-3). Hezekiah and Josiah receive special commendation: Hezekiah for his trust in the Lord and his honoring of God’s word (18:5-6), and Josiah for his high regard for the law of Moses (23:25). The implication is clear. God’s people are to live in accord with the high standards of God’s word so that they may do what is “pleasing in God’s sight” (cp. Ps 119:9-11, 111; 2 Tim 3:16-17).
The prominence given to the final days of the great prophet Elijah (1:3-17; 2:1-11) and to Elisha’s spectacular ministry (2:12-25; 3:11-19; 4:1–7:2; 8:1-2) emphasizes the need to proclaim God’s words to others (Acts 20:18-21; 2 Tim 2:15; 4:2) so that they may come into covenant relationship with the Lord (2 Cor 3:4-6).
Finally, the failures of even the good kings remind God’s people to steadfastly be faithful to the Lord and serve him. Then their lives can be filled with good (Ps 84:11; Rom 14:7-8), and when they stand before God for judgment (Rom 14:10-11; 2 Cor 5:10), he will reward and praise them (2 Tim 4:7-8; Rev 2:10; see Matt 25:23).
1Chr.1.1-29.30
The books of 1–2 Chronicles were written to inspire hope. Exile had robbed the people of Israel of their wealth, and their return to the land created resentment among their neighbors. Despondency and apathy threatened to destroy them entirely. The Chronicler’s task was to establish and validate the people’s links with the past. In writing this history, he organized the past in a way that provided meaning and value for the present. He believed that his community, Judea, was critically significant in representing the Kingdom of God. He knew that the community needed to retain its distinctive sense of identity in order to fulfill its purpose.
Setting
The Babylonians had conquered the kingdom of Judah between 605 and 586 BC. Within a generation, Babylonian power eroded because of its own internal decay (see Dan 5). Meanwhile, to the east, the Persian king Cyrus the Great (559–530 BC) established a new empire that united the Medes and the Persians. In October 539 BC, Babylon fell without resistance, and Cyrus’s empire extended westward to include Babylonia (see Dan 5:30-31).
In keeping with his imperial policy, Cyrus provided for the Jewish exiles to return to Judea and establish a province around the city of Jerusalem. The account of this period is told in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah and by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. The community experienced spiritual restoration, physical protection, and a measure of economic independence. Yet there was virtually no hope of political autonomy. The besieged community bore little resemblance to the former kingdom. They also faced scorn, opposition, and humiliation from surrounding peoples as they rebuilt the Temple and later the wall of Jerusalem. They struggled to maintain their identity, faith, and way of life as social and political forces threatened to absorb them completely. They needed a sense of purpose and hope.
The people of Judea faced some profound questions at this time: How could they remain true to their ancestral faith while living under the domination of an imperial power? How could a subordinate people be the people of God? What did the promise of the eternal throne of David mean under these circumstances? Some Jews in later Greek and Roman times (e.g., the Maccabees and the “zealots” of the New Testament era) answered these questions with a nationalism that sought to rebel and establish independence. Other Jews, perceiving their situation as inescapable, focused on covenant faithfulness to God within the context of empire. The book of 1 Chronicles was written to address these questions and concerns.
Summary
The text of 1 Chronicles divides into two distinct sections: the portrayal of Israel’s identity through genealogies (1 Chr 1:1–9:44), and David’s preparing of Jerusalem for the Temple and the rule of Solomon (10:1–29:30).
The first chapter of genealogies (ch 1) moves along the line of God’s selection of specific people from Adam to Jacob (= Israel). Chapters 2–8 deal with the Israelites from Jacob until the exile to Babylon. This section first details the tribe of Judah (chs 2–4), discussing the house of David in the central section (ch 3), and then describes the other tribes of Israel (chs 5–7), including those east of the Jordan River (in Transjordan). At the midpoint in these additional genealogical lists comes Levi (ch 6), a tribe with central significance. The record then continues with the tribe of Benjamin (ch 8). The genealogies are completed down to about 400 BC, with a list of the chief representatives of the community who returned from exile and began restoring Jerusalem (ch 9).
Saul’s genealogy (9:35-44) introduces the founding of the monarchy. When Saul died because of his unfaithfulness (10:1-14), David became king (11:1–12:40). The chapters on David’s reign explain his organization of officials and his preparations for the Temple (chs 13–27). The transfer of the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem (chs 13–16) served as a major event in the establishment of David’s kingdom. The remainder of 1 Chronicles traces the steps taken toward building the Temple. These chapters include the identity of the builder (ch 17), the necessary political conditions (chs 18–20), the site (ch 21), the personnel (chs 23–27), the materials, and the plans (chs 22, 28–29). The account of David’s reign closes with a great public assembly and Solomon’s commissioning as the king of peace who would build the Temple (chs 28–29).
Authorship and Date
The books of Chronicles are traditionally ascribed to Ezra, but the author left no indications about his own identity apart from the content of his writings. The Chronicler lived in or near Jerusalem and was an ardent supporter of the Temple and its services. The prominence he gives to the Levites in his writing might suggest that he was among their number. (This would explain his access to the material he used to compose his history.)
The Chronicler wrote in the latter years of the Persian Empire, probably around 400 BC. The genealogy of the descendants of Jehoiachin (3:17-24) suggests a date that is eight generations later than Zerubbabel, who served as governor around 520 BC, during the days of Darius, king of Persia (Zech 1:1; 4:9). The Chronicler probably wrote some time after Nehemiah traveled to Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes (445 BC) to repair the walls of the city (Neh 2:1). Chronicles was not written as late as the Greek period, beginning with Alexander the Great (332 BC), because the writing contains no linguistic or ideological evidence of Greek influence. These considerations point to a date around 400 BC.
Historical Situation
Little is known about the situation in Judea after Nehemiah, although Nehemiah reveals some of the difficulties of the community. The temptation to marry outside of Israel was great, and mixed marriages remained in the days of Malachi (400s BC; see Mal 2:14-16). Foreign marriages gave access to land and wealth that were not available within the community. This practice was contrary to the law, however, which Ezra brought back with him from Babylon. The self-sufficiency and exclusivity enjoined by Ezra and Nehemiah aroused the ongoing resentment and hostility of the surrounding peoples, particularly as the Jews sought to reestablish the Temple as the social and economic center of the community.
Genre and Composition
The title of Chronicles also defines the genre of the work. In Hebrew, the term refers to “the events of the days.” In the prologue to the Latin translation of Samuel and Kings, Jerome calls Chronicles the chronikon, or “annals,” a register of events, a record book of ancient times. In other words, it is written as a history. Meanwhile, the Greek translation of the Old Testament (the Septuagint), calls this history “the left-over things.” This title regarded Chronicles as a secondary complement to Kings, an attitude that likely would have horrified its author. This work is a unique creation from many different sources.
In writing this history, the Chronicler organized Israel’s past in a way that provided meaning and value for its intended readers. He included genealogies because they answered two critical questions of history: Whose story needed to be told? and Where did these people live? The Chronicler’s work explains why a people with no influence or recognition considered their existence and way of life to be of profound significance for the future.
The book of 1 Chronicles covers essentially the same time period as 2 Samuel. Accordingly, there are numerous parallel passages with similar wording. But the authors had different purposes in writing, and these differences can be highlighted by comparing the various parallel passages.
Meaning and Message
God’s promise to David (17:1-27) occupies the center of the Chronicler’s message. When David determined to build a house for God’s Ark of the Covenant, Nathan the prophet had a vision informing him that David had it backwards: David would not build a house for God, but God would build a house for David. This house would be a dynasty (2 Sam 7:11-14 // 1 Chr 17:10-14), and the eternal Kingdom of God would come about through David’s lineage. Psalm 2 expresses the importance of this promise: God held the nations in derision because they rejected his kingdom and thought that they could establish their own rule. They ignored the fact that God had already anointed his king on Mount Zion, a king who would shatter the nations and receive the earth as his inheritance. The Chronicler took this promise very seriously. The Kingdom of God would come through the promised son of David. The community around Jerusalem represented that promised Kingdom, the hope of the future.
The Chronicler had a double task. First, he needed to explain why the kingdom of David had failed. Second, he needed to establish that this small, struggling province of the mighty Persian Empire would become the kingdom that God had promised to David. The explanation for the failure of David’s kingdom begins with Saul’s failure: God rejected Saul as king over Israel because he was unfaithful. Saul did not obey God, and he violated the covenant to the extent of consulting a medium (10:13). Later kings repeated the essence of Saul’s failure: They rebelled against God’s covenant, and they sought security from foreign powers and pagan gods rather than from their Rock, the Lord (see Deut 32:4, 15-39). Thus unfaithfulness is a key word in Chronicles; the Chronicler uses it repeatedly to document the reasons for judgment against the kings of Judah.
The rationale for hope, on the other hand, comes from Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the Temple: “Then if my people who are called by my name will humble themselves and pray and seek my face and turn from their wicked ways, I will hear from heaven and will forgive their sins and restore their land” (2 Chr 7:14). This promise reminds the people of the conditions necessary for restoration: humility, prayer, repentance, and healing.
The book of 1 Chronicles establishes the necessary premises for restoration. The promise to David did not disappear during the Exile; the community that was reestablished in Jerusalem carried the promise. Even the division of the kingdom after Solomon’s reign had not put any of the tribes outside of Israel’s future. For the Chronicler, all the tribes were present in the restoration, including those of the northern kingdom (see 1 Chr 9:3). The Chronicler understood Israel as a people of faith, not as a political entity. Israel was not a sovereign nation in his day but was a small ethnic province in the mighty empire of Persia. Yet he wanted to show that the unity established by David and Solomon had endured and that the promise made to David gave them hope for the future.
2Chr.1.1-36.23
Second Chronicles gives purpose and hope to a people with an uncertain future. God had promised that David’s descendants would have an everlasting kingdom, but the people of Judah had been exiled to Babylon. Even after returning to Jerusalem, they now lived as Persian subjects. Judah had no king descended from David and no hope of becoming a kingdom. Yet God’s promises are certain, so the Chronicler encouraged the Judeans to hope for the future. The words of King Jehoshaphat capture the spirit of the book: “Listen to me, all you people of Judah and Jerusalem! Believe in the Lord your God, and you will be able to stand firm. Believe in his prophets, and you will succeed” (2 Chr 20:20).
Setting
The Babylonian conquest of Judah occurred in 605–586 BC, about two centuries before Chronicles was written (around 400 BC; see 1 Chronicles Book Introduction, “Authorship and Date”).
To address questions about God’s purposes and promises, the Chronicler narrated the past of the Israelites from the earliest times until the destruction of the kingdom of Judah. By carefully selecting his material and reworking it to suit his own purposes, he did not intend to replace or supplement earlier historical writings. Instead, he presumed that his readers were already familiar with his main sources and knew the characters in his books. He made his writings vital to his own time: He evaluated the past from his own vantage point and wrote so that his contemporaries could understand their heritage, the Temple and its worship, and the status of God’s promises.
Summary
The first nine chapters of 2 Chronicles focus on the reign of Solomon. Much of this narrative pertains to the building of the Temple and to providing for the priests. Solomon’s prayer and God’s response are central to the Chronicler’s account of Solomon (6:1–7:22). God responded to Solomon’s prayer in a vision that articulated the Chronicler’s own theological perspective (7:12-22): God answers the prayers and repentance of his people; he brings judgment upon the disobedient, but he rewards humility and prayer with healing and deliverance.
After recording the division of the monarchy, the Chronicler focused almost exclusively on the southern kingdom of Judah. He associated the continuity of the kingdom and Israel’s future with the dynasty of David and the Temple in Jerusalem. However, David’s descendants who ruled Judah were not always models of obedience. Meanwhile, the northern kingdom, Israel, sometimes did what was right (e.g., 28:5-15). The Chronicler saw the northern kingdom as a part of Israel that needed to be restored, and he took special interest in contacts between the north and the south. He did not condemn the northerners for the division, but he did blame them for their refusal to return once their grievances were settled, as he considered their future to be closely tied to Judah.
The Chronicler’s portrayal of Judah’s kings sometimes departs remarkably from parallel descriptions in the book of Kings. Uzziah appears as a minor figure in Kings (2 Kgs 15:1-7), even though he was a powerful king who ruled for more than fifty years. In Chronicles, Uzziah is a famous reformer and builder. Likewise, although little is said about Jotham in Kings (2 Kgs 15:32-38), in Chronicles his work is portrayed as extensive (2 Chr 27:3-4). The Chronicler also expands our understanding of Hezekiah (29:1–32:33), dealing extensively with Hezekiah’s reforms and the restoration of Temple worship, and describing at length how Hezekiah prepared for the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem.
The reigns of Manasseh and Amon follow (33:1-25); their wickedness and idolatry set the stage for Judah’s demise. In Chronicles, unlike Kings, we learn how Manasseh experienced his own exile, repentance, and return to Judah—a microcosm of what the Judeans themselves later experienced.
Josiah’s reign (34:1–35:27) was pleasing to God. But when Josiah died (609 BC), Judah’s end soon followed. Within four years, the Babylonians began a series of attacks (605–586 BC) that led to the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple and the exile of most of the population to Babylon (36:2-21). The covenant unfaithfulness of the people of Judah had come to fruition.
The account ends with a glimmer of hope: Cyrus’s proclamation in 538 BC that allowed the Jews to return to Judah and rebuild Jerusalem (36:22-23).
Chronicles as History
Chronicles is an ancient work of history with a distinctive approach. The book of 2 Chronicles covers essentially the same time period as 1–2 Kings. And while the Chronicler drew upon the earlier records of Samuel, Kings, and other sources, his own work shows remarkable independence. He gave detailed attention to military, administrative, and geopolitical affairs in times that were already hundreds of years distant. He frequently added detailed information not found in any other surviving sources but evidently available to him.
Archaeology occasionally provides confirmation of administrative and geopolitical reforms discussed by the Chronicler. For example, an inscription has been found in the Siloam Tunnel describing Hezekiah’s water project. Most of the time, the evidence has only a broad connection, such as with Uzziah’s building activity or agricultural initiatives. The work of the Chronicler is a valuable resource for understanding the history of the times he wrote about.
Meaning and Message
A fundamental question for the restored community in Judea after the Exile was: What is our relationship to the Israel of the past? They were no longer an independent nation but a small province of the Persian Empire. Judea had no king, lived under foreign domination, and had only recently rebuilt the Temple destroyed by the Babylonians. What validity did God’s promises regarding the Temple and David’s dynasty have for the community?
To the Chronicler, David’s reign offered a paradigm for his own readers. David moved from being a fugitive from Saul (a condition of exile) to being in the community of God. The postexilic community reading Chronicles had undergone a similar transition from exile and could anticipate similar blessings if they were obedient.
Chronicles presents the period of David and Solomon as an ideal time when all of Israel united in worship (7:8). The account of David’s reign displays much concern for the correct worship of God. The restoration of the Ark to Jerusalem and David’s military victories provided for the future Temple, and David made all the necessary arrangements regarding the officials who would serve as worship shifted to Jerusalem.
The Chronicler regards Solomon’s reign as equal to David’s, because Solomon brought to fruition David’s plans for the Temple and for worship there (3:1; 5:1; 7:1). In Chronicles, David appoints Solomon to the throne in a public announcement, and Solomon enjoys divine blessing and the total support of the people. The Chronicler does not mention Adonijah’s attempted coup or Solomon’s sins, and he shifts blame for the schism to Jeroboam (13:6-7). Solomon’s wealth and international influence reflect his glorious, peaceful, and righteous reign.
The division of Israel into northern and southern kingdoms shows the failure of the kingdom to meet its ideals, but it does not mean that all hope was lost. Obedience still results in God’s blessing, and disobedience will be punished. Each time a calamity is recounted, the Chronicler provides a cause for judgment, and he emphasizes the blessings that result from faithfulness. Repentance is always a means of averting or at least moderating judgment. Prophetic warnings are always issued before judgment comes, and the possibility of healing is always present. This pattern provides a primary way that the Chronicler communicates hope for the future in his own time.
The Chronicler also offers events in the reign of Hezekiah as a solution to the problem of the divided monarchy. Previously, the kingdom of Judah under Ahaz had descended to the same level of disobedience as Israel (28:2, 6), whereas Israel’s leaders confessed their sins (28:13), indicating their readiness for restoration. The Chronicler then introduces Hezekiah, distinctively characterizing him as a second Solomon. Hezekiah invited the north to join in the first Passover of his reign, and many responded (30:11); a similar celebration had not been held since Solomon’s time (30:26). Hezekiah’s Passover provides a model for the restoration of Israel as a unified kingdom.
The Chronicler used his account of Israel’s history to teach his readers to maintain hope for a historical restoration of David’s kingdom—however remote such a possibility may have seemed—and to maintain holy lives and a righteous community in the meantime. The Chronicler makes it clear that the kingdom of Israel was not a mere human institution subject to the whims of political expediency. It was God’s kingdom, and God would ultimately restore it.
Ezra.1.1-10.44
Ezra recounts God’s marvelous work in bringing many Israelites back to Jerusalem after seventy years of exile in Babylon. The restored community struggled to resist pagan influences, to rebuild the Temple, and to deal with sin in the lives of those who chose to follow the world’s values rather than God’s. In Ezra we see how God provides for and protects those who trust in him and faithfully obey his word.
Setting
About 130 years before Ezra came to Jerusalem in 458 BC, God punished Judah’s persistent wickedness by sending the Babylonians to destroy the city, demolish the Temple, and take thousands into exile (see 2 Kgs 25:1-30). While in exile in Babylon, the Israelites were able to build homes, have gardens, and live a fairly good life with some religious freedom (Jer 29:4-5). Some attained positions of power (Dan 3, 6).
God had promised to return his people to the holy land after seventy years (2 Chr 36:21; Jer 25:12; 29:10). Around 559 BC, the Persian prince Cyrus II subdued the Medes and fused them into what would become the Persian empire. Then, in 539 BC, the Persians defeated the Babylonians, paving the way for this promise to be fulfilled. In 538 BC, Cyrus began to allow the Jewish people to leave Babylon. Sheshbazzar led the first group of exiles to return to their homeland (Ezra 1:1-8).
When the people of Israel and Judah had been deported to foreign lands, the Assyrians and Babylonians had settled other conquered peoples in the land of Israel. The returning Jewish exiles found these foreigners inhabiting the land that they sought to reclaim and rebuild. These foreigners claimed to worship the same God as the Jews, but they actually advocated a “melting pot” religion that combined pagan and Jewish ideas and practices. These foreigners wanted to worship with the returning Jews. The Jews recognized the spiritual compromise that would entail (4:3) and refused the foreigners any part in their community. As a result, the Jewish community experienced severe opposition from the foreigners living in the land. Although this stand led to many years of conflict and a delay in Temple reconstruction, the Exile had taught the Jews that compromising the purity of their faith would yield worse results.
Several decades later, Ezra arrived in Jerusalem. He found that some of the Israelites had compromised their faith by marrying foreigners (9:1-2). God had expressly forbidden such marriage because it would inevitably lead to adopting pagan religious beliefs (Deut 7:3-4; Josh 23:12-13). This sin would surely bring God’s judgment if it were not confessed and rectified (9:13-15; 10:14). Ezra led the people to separate themselves from the pagans and renew their covenant with God (10:1-11).
Chronological Summary
Ezra retraces events in Judah from 538 to about 450 BC.
538–536 BC. After Cyrus’s decree allowing Jews to return to their homeland (538 BC, 1:1-4), a group of about 50,000 returnees set out for Jerusalem, where they reestablished the Jewish community, built a new altar (1:5–3:6), and began rebuilding the Temple (3:7-13). These Jews refused to compromise their beliefs by joining together with local unbelievers. Local opposition soon halted all progress in their rebuilding effort (4:1-5).
520–515 BC. Almost two decades later, God used the prophets Haggai and Zechariah to motivate his people to continue rebuilding the Temple (5:1–6:12). The Jews responded, and with support from Persia, the Temple was completed in 515 BC without further interference (see also Hag 1:2-6; Zech 4:9; 6:12-15; 8:9).
486–445 BC. The Jews later experienced opposition during their initial attempt to rebuild the city and its walls (Ezra 4:6-23).
458 BC. Ezra traveled to Jerusalem to administer government affairs (7:1-26). He learned that some people were not following the laws of Moses but were marrying unbelievers and defiling Israel. After Ezra interceded for God’s mercy, he led an official judicial investigation of this matter. Many Israelites repented of their sins and divorced their pagan wives (9:1–10:44).
445 BC. Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem and succeeded in rebuilding its walls amid much opposition and difficulty (see Neh 1–7).
Authorship
Traditionally, Ezra and Nehemiah are considered a single book written by Ezra. As a scribe, Ezra would have had access to many of the official documents included in the book.
Some also maintain that Ezra wrote Chronicles because the last verses in 2 Chronicles (2 Chr 36:22-23) are very similar to the first verses in Ezra (Ezra 1:1-3). The books have common vocabulary and similar theological viewpoints. Many scholars reject this conclusion, however, on the grounds that the linguistic and theological differences between Chronicles and Ezra—Nehemiah far outweigh the similarities.
Language and Sources
Most of the Old Testament was written in Hebrew, but the book of Ezra contains two sections written in Aramaic (4:8–6:18 and 7:12-26), the common language of the Persian empire. The six official documents in these sections are: Rehum’s letter to King Artaxerxes (4:8-16), Artaxerxes’ letter to Rehum (4:17-22), Tattenai’s letter to King Darius (5:6-17), Cyrus’s decree to build the Temple in Jerusalem (6:3-5), Darius’s letter to Tattenai (6:6-12), and Artaxerxes’ letter to Ezra (7:12-26). The authentic character of these documents helps verify the historical truthfulness of Ezra’s account.
Ezra also includes several documents written in Hebrew: the decree of Cyrus (1:2-4); a list of Temple vessels (1:9-11); a list of the Israelites who first returned to Jerusalem (2:1-69); a list of those who returned with Ezra (8:1-14); a list of treasures Ezra brought to Jerusalem with him (8:26-27); and a list of the men who divorced pagan wives (10:18-44). These lists assured the Jewish people that Ezra kept accurate records. Only the original holy objects would be used in the Temple, only those on the official list of Israelites could worship at the Temple, and only the men who divorced pagan wives would be included in the holy people of God. By including these details, Ezra took great care to distinguish between what was holy and what was not.
Meaning and Message
The people of God felt helpless as they returned to Jerusalem from exile in Babylon. They faced the threat of robbers on their long trip back to Jerusalem, opposition to their presence in Jerusalem from neighbors, an inability to influence Persian government policies, and the enormous task of rebuilding a nation in ruins. How could they follow God when so many things were out of their control? Ezra focuses on four key themes to explain how God accomplishes his will in the lives of his people.
1. Everything that happens results from God’s sovereign control over Israel’s history. God prompted Cyrus to allow the Jews to return to Jerusalem after seventy years of exile (Ezra 1:1-4). God also promised that treasures from other nations would flow to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple (Hag 2:7-8); this happened (Ezra 6:6-12) because God changed Darius’s heart (6:22). Later, when Ezra came to Jerusalem, God moved Artaxerxes to give Ezra everything he needed (7:6). And it was God who protected the Jews from attack as they traveled to Jerusalem (8:22, 31). Ezra recognized that the future of the nation was in God’s hand (9:6-15). Only a believer who is convinced that God is sovereign over this world will be able to remain faithful to God in the midst of conflict, difficulty, and discouragement.
2. God’s people must be pure and separate from sinfulness in this world. Ezra, a priest from the line of Aaron (7:1-5), was strong in his conviction regarding separateness. So were the early returnees who refused to cooperate with the local pagan people (4:1-5). While this led to many years of frustration and conflict, the people knew that they could not compromise the purity of their faith and still remain the people of God. When Ezra later arrived in Jerusalem, this commitment was not evident among those living there (9:1-2). Ezra recognized the crisis (9:3-15) and led the people to renew their covenant with God and to separate themselves from pagans (10:1-11).
3. Following God’s word is of primary importance. As a scribe, Ezra was determined to study and obey the law of God and to teach it to others (7:10). Ezra repeatedly explained his decisions by pointing to God’s instructions in Scripture. The king of Persia had instructed Ezra to teach and enforce the Mosaic laws (7:14, 23-25), and that is exactly what Ezra did (e.g., 8:35; 9:1–10:17).
4. Intercessory prayer invites God’s compassion and power. Ezra’s prayer of confession (9:6-15) is a model of humility in seeking God’s grace. Ezra knew that these sinful people would not be moved by a sternly worded sermon condemning them. Instead, he tore his clothes, wept, and mourned over the sinfulness of the nation. God powerfully used his confession to pierce the hearts of the people, and a great revival took place (9:6–10:17). Similarly, Ezra had earlier fasted and prayed for safety on their journey to Jerusalem, acknowledging that only God could protect them from attack (8:21-23, 31-32).
Neh.1.1-13.31
Nehemiah left a comfortable job as an assistant to the king of Persia in order to help the demoralized people of Jerusalem. His new work involved motivating the people to rebuild the city’s walls in spite of their neighbors’ opposition. Nehemiah’s work was not just with bricks and mortar. He also mediated a financial crisis, initiated religious reforms with the help of Ezra the scribe, and reorganized civic responsibilities in Jerusalem. Nehemiah demonstrated that with faith, prayer, integrity, and God’s help, God’s servants can succeed.
Setting
After the Jews had spent several decades in exile in Babylon, God caused the Persian king Cyrus to decree in 538 BC that they could return to their homeland to rebuild their sacred Temple (Ezra 1:2-4). About fifty thousand people returned to Jerusalem at that time. After arriving, they built an altar and joyfully worshiped God (Ezra 3:1-13).
When they started rebuilding the rest of the Temple, the Jews were threatened by local people who had settled in the area. These opponents turned the Persian authorities against the Jews (Ezra 4:1-5). After fifteen years of frustration, work on the Temple finally began again during the reign of Darius I (521–486 BC), primarily through the prophetic encouragement of Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 5:1-5). This time, the Persians fully supported the rebuilding of the Temple (Ezra 6:1-12).
About sixty years later, in 458 BC, Ezra the scribe brought a group of several thousand more Jews to Jerusalem (Ezra 7:1–8:36). Before long, he learned that some of the leaders and priests had married wives who did not worship Israel’s God. Ezra saw this as a threat to the unity and purity of the nation, and he knew it would eventually cause God to punish the people with another exile from the land (Ezra 9:1-15). After Ezra’s emotional prayer confessing their sin, most of the others agreed that the intermarriage was wrong.
Ezra did not solve all the problems in Jerusalem. The people still did not have a secure city with rebuilt walls and gates. Numerous enemies still opposed their presence in Jerusalem. They needed a strong civic leader who could help them preserve the independence, economic vitality, security, and sanctity of Jerusalem. God sent a new leader, Nehemiah, to address these issues.
Summary
The book of Nehemiah traces events from around 445 BC, the twentieth year of Artaxerxes I (2:1), until after 432 BC, the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes (13:6-7).
Nehemiah was the cup-bearer of King Artaxerxes of Persia (1:11). When Nehemiah heard about the ruined condition of Jerusalem (1:1-3), he earnestly prayed for God’s help. God’s answer came through Artaxerxes, who sent Nehemiah to Judah to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem (ch 3). Nehemiah organized and motivated the people and led them with courage and integrity through times of resistance from outside enemies (4:1-23; 6:1-14) and conflict within the community (ch 5). Despite strong opposition (6:1-4), under Nehemiah’s leadership the people rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem in just fifty-two days (6:15).
Following the completion of the walls, the account focuses on religious reforms led by Ezra and Nehemiah (7:73–10:39). At the annual Festival of Shelters, Ezra read to the crowd from the books of Moses (8:5-8), resulting in a revival and a long prayer of confession (9:5-37). During this revival, the Israelites committed not to intermarry with foreigners and not to profane the Sabbath (10:28-39).
The book’s final section (chs 11–13) describes Nehemiah’s civic efforts to resettle more people in Jerusalem (11), to dedicate the walls of Jerusalem (12:27-43), and to organize the gatekeepers and Temple storeroom attendants (12:44–13:5). After a time of absence, Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem (13:6-7). When he arrived, he took measures to ensure the purity of the Temple, and he again confronted the people concerning the Sabbath and intermarriage with people who worshiped other gods (13:10-28).
Authorship
The book itself does not identify its author. The Talmud (Baba Batra 15a) says that Ezra wrote both Ezra and Nehemiah, and this is the most likely possibility. Nehemiah 8–10 were probably from Ezra’s own memoirs. Ezra also adapted and arranged a variety of materials to suit his purposes, apparently including Nehemiah’s memoirs and his reports to the Persian court regarding the reconstruction progress in Jerusalem (Nehemiah 1–7 and 11–13).
Nehemiah shares several characteristics with the book of Ezra. Both Ezra (Ezra 1–6) and Nehemiah (Neh 1–7) describe the return of exiles to Jerusalem to complete a rebuilding project. Both books contain stories of neighbors opposing the rebuilding efforts. Most importantly, both Nehemiah and Ezra show how hard work and God’s help enabled the people to complete the construction of important structures in Jerusalem. Both books also tell of spiritual reforms in which the community listened to God’s word, repented of past failures, and instituted religious and social reforms (Ezra 9–10; Neh 8–10).
Several events in Nehemiah have parallels in Ezra that are told in similar ways. There are stories about those who opposed the rebuilding (6:1-14; Ezra 4:1-23), processionals to celebrate dedications (12:31-43; Ezra 6:16-18), and similar reforms (13:15-29; Ezra 9:1–10:44). Like Ezra, Nehemiah has lists of names (3; 7:6-73; 10:1-27; 11:1–12:26) and at least one parenthetical section (7:6–10:39) followed by the resumption of a previous account (11:1-4). These factors lead many biblical scholars to believe that one author wrote both Ezra and Nehemiah.
Meaning and Message
Prayer. Nehemiah based his service on prayer. He earnestly prayed for God to rescue the people from their despised situation, and God answered by sending Nehemiah (1:1–2:8). When foreigners opposed restoring the walls of Jerusalem, Nehemiah asked God to judge them (4:4-5; 6:14). Nehemiah prayed for divine support when he dealt with people who were driving fellow Jews into slavery (5:19), those who were not tithing (13:14), and people who were not keeping the Sabbath (13:22). Prayer provided the power to accomplish God’s will. Six times Nehemiah repeated a refrain asking the Lord to “remember” either him or his opponents (5:19; 6:14; 13:14, 22, 29, 31).
God’s Providence. The book of Nehemiah emphasizes that God sovereignly controls the lives of individuals and nations. God is able to restore people from exile (1:8-9), to promote one of his servants to be the king’s cup-bearer and later the governor of a province (1:11; 2:8, 18), and to give success in rebuilding the walls (2:20; 6:16). God protects his people (4:4-5, 9, 20) and frustrates the plans of the wicked (4:14-15). The same God who created heaven and earth (9:6), called Abram from Ur, and gave the land to Israel (9:7-8) was able to accomplish his will through Nehemiah.
Dedication to God’s Word. The authoritative law of Moses contained God’s instructions on how his people should live. God had made a “covenant of unfailing love with those who love him and obey his commands” (1:5). However, his people had not obeyed the instructions God gave to Moses (1:7-9), so they were in danger of God’s punishment. Ezra read publicly from the law of Moses (8:1-3) to restore the nation. In response, many of the people dedicated themselves to following the law by separating themselves from unbelievers (10:28), keeping the Sabbath, and giving their tithe for the Levites (10:29-39; 12:44).
Courage against Opposition. Nehemiah was courageous in dealing with opposition. Sanballat, Geshem, and Tobiah opposed the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls (2:10) and mocked the work of God’s people (2:19; 4:1-3). In addition, Arabs, Ammonites, and people from Ashdod plotted to attack the builders (4:7-9, 11; 6:1-14). Nehemiah responded to this opposition by posting guards and praying for God’s help (4:6-23). Nehemiah also confronted internal conflict from members of the community who abused the poor (5:1-13), who married foreigners (9:1-2; 10:28-30; 13:23-28), and who did not tithe or keep the Sabbath holy (10:31-39; 13:10-22). Nehemiah’s courage and prayer enabled him to succeed in addressing these problems.
Esth.1.1-10.3
Esther’s rags-to-riches drama tells the story of a woman with wisdom, courage, and willingness who affected the lives of thousands. With a praying community of supporters, and with God providentially working in the background, Esther accepted her role and put her life on the line to save others.
Setting
The book of Esther is set during the reign of King Xerxes of Persia (486–465 BC). In a previous generation (538 BC), about 50,000 people had returned to Judea from Babylonia (Ezra 1:1-5; 2:64-67). But many Jewish families, including Esther’s, had stayed behind.
During Xerxes’ reign, the Persian empire was near its peak. Xerxes and his military had accomplished great things, including a decisive victory over Egypt. Wealth from taxes poured into the Persian capital of Susa, and Xerxes oversaw the construction of a luxurious new palace at Persepolis. However, Xerxes was a tyrannical king. Esther entered Xerxes’ court and was chosen to be his queen. She was faced with the challenge of serving God and her people in a time of crisis while being the faithful wife of a pagan king.
Summary
When King Xerxes gave a lavish banquet for key leaders of Persia, Queen Vashti refused to show off her beauty, so Xerxes deposed her and searched for a new queen (1:1–2:4). Mordecai’s cousin Esther, a Jew, was chosen (2:5-18).
After Mordecai became a palace official, he uncovered a plot against the king and reported it through Esther. On a later occasion Mordecai refused to bow to Haman, Xerxes’ highest official, which led to Haman’s vindictive plot to kill all the Jews in the empire (2:19–3:15). As the Jewish community prayed (4:16), Esther endangered her own life, approaching the king uninvited, and asked the king and Haman to come to a feast (ch 4). Haman, meanwhile, had built a pole so that he could impale Mordecai (5:14).
After realizing that Mordecai had never been rewarded for uncovering the assassination plot, the king ordered that Haman lead a procession designed to honor Mordecai, a humiliating turn of events for Haman (ch 6). Then, at the banquet, Esther revealed that Haman’s plot was a personal attack on her people. Haman was impaled on his own poleput to death on his own gallows (ch 7).
King Xerxes then allowed the Jewish people to defend themselves against their enemies (8:1-14). The Jews rejoiced, Mordecai was promoted, and Haman’s sons were executed (9:1-17). The Jewish people then defended themselves successfully and celebrated God’s marvelous deliverance at the first Festival of Purim.
Authorship and Date
The text of Esther does not indicate who wrote the book or when it was written. Some early church fathers thought that Ezra wrote Esther, but Clement of Alexandria suggested Mordecai. Since there are many Persian words in the book and there is no Greek influence, the book was probably written between 460 BC (i.e., after the conclusion of Xerxes’ reign) and 331 BC (i.e., before Alexander the Great conquered Persia).
Genre: History or Fiction?
The book of Esther is a biographical narrative similar to the account of Joseph (Gen 37–48) and the book of Ruth. Some question the historicity of this account because of the implausibility that (a) a Persian king would issue a decree for widespread extermination of the Jews, (b) the Jews would slaughter seventy-five thousand enemies in one day, (c) a non-Persian like Esther would be queen, and (d) a large number of improbable coincidences would take place.
On the other hand, the historical accuracy of the book is supported because (a) the book uses authentic Persian names, titles, and customs; (b) elsewhere God works behind the scenes to use improbable coincidences to his glory (e.g., Gen 37–48; Ruth 1–4); (c) Esther hid her identity as a Jew until long after she became queen; and (d) kings do not usually oppose the slaughter of their enemies, especially at the suggestion of their highest officials.
Additions to the Book of Esther
The Hebrew text of Esther is defined by a strong and consistent Hebrew manuscript tradition. Nevertheless, the Targums and Midrash (interpretation and commentary on the Hebrew Old Testament), the Greek Old Testament, the Latin Vulgate, and Josephus (a first-century Roman Jewish historian) all include additional stories that are not included in the Hebrew text but were composed later. The additions mention God numerous times, whereas the Hebrew text does not. None of the additions contain authoritative original information; some just repeat information from the Hebrew version of Esther, while some contradict information. Other additions are based on the imagination of later authors. Instead of inserting these additions where they fit chronologically and making them look like an authentic part of the story, Jerome, who translated and edited the Latin Vulgate, collected them together at the end of the Old Testament in the deuterocanonical books, which are included in Roman Catholic and Orthodox translations.
Meaning and Message
Although the book of Esther never mentions God, its central purpose is to demonstrate that God works providentially to take care of his people. God used Xerxes’ drunken arrogance to elevate Esther to a position of influence (chs 1–2). Haman’s evil plans to kill the Jews were brought back on his own head through a series of unique and ironic circumstances, and the day of execution became a day of joy for God’s people. The book of Esther reminds us that God providentially directs people and events to accomplish his purposes.
Job.1.1-42.17
When suffering comes to us, we often ask why. People sometimes say it’s because the sufferer did something wrong. The book of Job examines the suffering of one man who suffered precisely because he was blameless. Job’s friends supposed that he was guilty of some unknown sin. They tried to persuade him to repent, but Job knew he hadn’t sinned, so he questioned God. Finally, God appeared, but he did not give Job the answers he sought. Instead, God confronted Job, changed his perspective, and blessed him.
Setting
The book of Job unfolds early in the patriarchal age, before Israel became a nation. Job’s wealth, like Abraham’s, was in livestock and slaves (1:3; 42:12; see Gen 12:16; 32:5). He was his family’s priest, as was a common practice before the law of Moses (1:5; 42:8; see Gen 4:4; 8:20; 12:7-8; 13:18; 15:9-10; 26:25; 33:20; 35:1-6; 46:1). During Job’s time, the Sabeans and Chaldeans were nomadic raiders (1:15, 17), not important political and economic powers as in the late monarchical period (cp. Isa 45:14; Joel 3:8). The money used by Job and his relatives was called the kesitah, which was used during the patriarchal age (42:11; see Gen 33:19; Josh 24:32). Only those who lived before the flood (Gen 1–6) and the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob) matched or exceeded Job’s longevity (42:16; see Gen 5:3-32; 25:7; 35:28; 47:28; 50:26). With Job, we return to the beginning of history, when mortals first struggled to know God and understand the world.
Summary
The prose introduction to the book of Job (chs 1–2) provides the heavenly perspective on Job’s suffering and sets the context for the human dialogue that forms most of the work. Job was a righteous man whom God allowed Satan to test. In the heavenly courtroom, Satan argued that if God removed his blessings from Job, he would “surely curse you to your face” (1:11). Instead, Job responded, “Praise the name of the Lord!” (1:21), and, “Should we accept only good things from the hand of God and never anything bad?” (2:10). God’s praise for Job was vindicated.
The reader then leaves the court of heaven and enters the council of humans as three of Job’s friends come to sympathize with him. Their silent, seven-day vigil is apparently a genuine attempt to console Job (2:11-13). However, when Job breaks his silence with a bitter complaint (ch 3), his counselors begin to criticize and condemn him. In three rounds of debate (chs 4–27), their rhetoric varies from innuendo to blatant accusation. Job’s friends argue a tight theological case: Since God is righteous, he rewards each person according to what that person has done; therefore, Job’s suffering must be the just punishment for some evil he has committed. Job responds to each of their speeches by insisting that he is innocent and that his suffering is undeserved and unfair.
After the three rounds of dialogue between Job and his friends, a poetic interlude praises God as the sole source of wisdom (ch 28). When Job then makes his final statement about both his misery and his righteousness (chs 29–31), his three friends give up on him (32:1). Elihu, a new voice, then renews the human struggle to explain Job’s suffering (chs 32–37). Finally, God arrives to challenge Job (chs 38–41). Instead of hearing Job’s case, God demands answers and poses questions that demonstrate his own power and sovereignty. Job responds with repentance and acknowledges that he does not have the right to question God (42:1-6).
In the final prose section (42:7-17), God reaffirms Job’s righteousness and faithfulness, pronounces judgment on Job’s friends, and pours out tremendous blessings on Job.
Job as History
The heavenly setting of the book’s opening and the manifestation of the supernatural at its closing tempt the modern reader to cast the book of Job as a fictional parable. The poetic dialogues also suggest that it is something more than just a dry historical record. But history can be described in flights of poetry just as well as in detailed narrative (cp. Exod 14:21-31; 15:1-12; Pss 78; 105). The biblical record elsewhere suggests that the account of Job is historical. Both Ezekiel and James referred to Job as an example of righteousness and endurance (Ezek 14:14, 20; Jas 5:11).
Author and Date of Composition
The authorship and composition of Job is a riddle. Although the story has a patriarchal setting (around 2000 BC), the date of its composition appears to be much later. Commentators have suggested dates that range from the era of Israel’s wilderness wanderings (Exodus—Numbers) to the era following the return from exile (Ezra—Nehemiah). The final composition of Job probably took place during the monarchy (1–2 Kings), when other wisdom materials such as Proverbs and Ecclesiastes were being accumulated.
Even if we accept that Job was a historical character, we still do not know who the author was, where he lived, or what level of society he came from. The author appears to have been a sage who was skilled in the use of proverbs (e.g., 4:2; 6:5-6), rhetorical questions (e.g., 21:29), and the art of eloquence. He also knew about plant and animal life, foreign culture, and antiquity, including the patriarchal period.
The book cannot be dated with certainty by reference to (1) events or people mentioned or implied in the book (the earliest reference to Job is during the Exile, Ezek 14:14, 20); (2) theological ideas in the book that point to distinct dates; or (3) its textual relationship to other material in the Old Testament (e.g., cp. 3:3-10; Jer 20:14-18). Job may even have been edited over a period of time by a number of different people.
Literary Characteristics
Ancient Parallels to Job. The book of Job has several parallels in ancient Near Eastern literature (The following list of parallels is based on James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament , 3rd ed. [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969]):
• The Canaanite “Legend of King Keret” tells of a king who loses his family in a series of natural disasters; his god El restores his family.
• The Egyptian document “Dispute over Suicide” (2000s BC) tells of a man who considers suicide and hopes that someone will take up his case with the heavenly council. (Job wishes he had never been born, but he never considers suicide.)
• Also from Egypt, “Protests of the Eloquent Peasant” (2200s BC) tells the story of a robbery victim who is not treated justly and appeals to local authorities. At first he is polite, but as he keeps presenting his case, his language becomes increasingly strident.
• From Babylonia, the story “I Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom” tells of a pious man of high rank who is struck with illness and mocked by friends. Unlike Job, this man believes that he has committed some accidental sin, perhaps something that he never thought was wrong. Rather than maintain his innocence, he acknowledges his guilt and begs for mercy. After a series of exorcisms that bring healing, his god restores his fortunes. In gratitude, he concludes with a long hymn of praise to his god.
• Also from Babylonia, the “Babylonian Theodicy” follows the same dialogue form that the book of Job uses: The sufferer complains, and his friends respond with rebukes. The arguments on both sides are remarkably similar to those in Job. Yet we also see key differences: (1) The “Babylonian Theodicy” is polytheistic, whereas Job is monotheistic; (2) its sufferer threatens to abandon his faith and give up obedience, even as he ends with a petition to his god and goddess. Job remains committed to the Lord throughout (e.g., Job 13:15-16).
Relationship to Israel’s Wisdom Literature. The book of Job has the flavor of other works of Old Testament wisdom literature. Job’s friends follow lines of thought spelled out in Deuteronomy, Chronicles, and Proverbs. They argue that wisdom and righteousness lead to life and prosperity, while folly and wickedness lead to death and failure. Job joins the author of Ecclesiastes in questioning the simplistic, universal application of this doctrine.
Meaning and Message
The book of Job does not explain suffering. That is not its purpose. But it does demonstrate that suffering is not necessarily God’s retribution for sin. Job does not get an answer as to why bad things happen to good people, and neither do we.
The central conflict of the book is between the integrity of the Creator and the integrity of a man. Heaven and earth appear to be at odds. It is too easy simply to line up with Job’s three friends in denying Job’s innocence, as we can appeal to various New Testament passages that deny that any human is righteous (e.g., Rom 3:10, 23; Luke 18:19). Job’s righteousness is genuine and thorough, though his obsession with his own rectitude sometimes borders on self-righteousness. He grows so adamant in defending his integrity that he seems ready to defy God. Job’s three friends set out a view of God that is more orthodox, at least on the surface. These counselors are more than weak, imaginary straw men; they accurately develop most of the biblical ways of explaining suffering. But their presumptuous applications go sour. They insist on a quid pro quo view of retribution, in which all the good and evil that people experience is directly related to what they have earned or deserved.
The book works within the basic commitments of Old Testament Israel’s faith. Job and all of the other speakers take seriously the covenantal ideas of blessing and cursing (Lev 26; Deut 28) and of sowing and reaping in this life (Ps 34:11-22; see also Gal 6:7; 1 Pet 3:10). They don’t even consider solutions to the problem of why God permits the righteous to suffer (theodicy) from outside the scope of biblical revelation (e.g., metaphysical dualism, polytheistic tensions, or materialistic naturalism). Instead, the book’s speakers explore only biblical answers. They explain the meaning of suffering as (1) punishment for sin (e.g., Job 4:7-9); (2) the inevitable lot of mortals, who tend toward sin (e.g., 15:14-16); (3) God’s discipline (e.g., 5:17-18; 33:15-28; 36:8-15; see Prov 3:11; Heb 12:2-13); (4) part of God’s mysterious plan (e.g., Job 11:7-8; 37:19, 23); or (5) a test imposed on earth to satisfy a heavenly dispute (e.g., 1:6-12).
Since life “under the sun” (see Ecclesiastes) is an arena too small to provide answers to all the great questions, the writer looks to the courts of heaven for a divine dimension to what takes place on earth. But the answer is not disclosed even there. Why did God entertain Satan’s challenge in the first place?
In the end, the book of Job shows God defending Job’s innocence and rejecting easy explanations of suffering. God also rejects Job’s demands for an explanation. Since Job could not possibly understand the whole universe, he should not demand an explanation of how his suffering fits into that order. The world cannot be explained in terms that humans can fully understand.
The book of Job thus offers a complex picture of God. He could have rejected Satan’s suggestion, having nothing to prove; yet he chose to allow the test, ultimately demonstrating his power and bringing defeat to Satan through the human Job. God never explains to Job what is happening behind the scenes. Instead, God challenges Job’s right to question the integrity of divine justice (40:8).
The way to live through calamities is not just to keep a stiff upper lip but to bow reverently before God and trust his sovereign goodness. In a day of calamity, humans can respond to God by worshiping him and acknowledging the wisdom and justice of his ways, regardless of how harsh the pain or dark the confusion. God’s holy purposes for human suffering are sometimes hidden. In the end, Job draws closer to God through his suffering: “I had only heard about you before, but now I have seen you with my own eyes” (42:5).
Ps.1.1-150.6
Jesus and the apostles loved the book of Psalms—they quoted from it and lived out of it. These ancient prayers and praises of Israel provide a bridge between the Old Testament and the New Testament; the themes introduced in the psalms find further development in the New Testament. Where David’s dynasty failed, Jesus gives hope. Yet, certain expectations that emerge in the book of Psalms still remain for the future, namely that God’s people will completely fulfill his purposes and that all nations will submit to the Messiah.
Summary
The psalms, like all Scripture, are inspired and given by God (see 2 Tim 3:16). Yet each psalm originated with a human author as a prayer or praise to the Lord. The psalms are diverse: The Psalter includes laments, praise psalms, wisdom, thanksgiving, reflections on God’s actions, celebrations of God’s revelation, and worship.
The first two psalms serve as an introduction to the entire Psalter (the book of Psalms). Psalm 1 describes a godly person who delights in God, lives by divine instruction, and is not influenced by evildoers. Psalm 1 points to three questions: (1) Is there forgiveness for sins? (2) Why do the godly suffer? and (3) Why do the wicked prosper? The rest of the Psalter meditates on these questions.
Psalm 2 speaks of how the nations and the wicked are in rebellion against God’s rule. God judges the rebellious and protects the godly. Psalm 2 suggests two questions: (1) Why do the rebellious nations and the wicked prosper? and (2) Why were the kings of David’s line not victorious?
The psalmists largely wrestle with these questions. Some quietly accept their problems, while others question God or become exasperated. Meanwhile, new questions and issues develop out of their dialogues with God.
The Composition of the Psalms
For a thousand years, poets wrote these poems while people recited and collected them. The Temple liturgy encouraged both the writing and the collection of psalms. Gradually, editors incorporated smaller collections into larger collections, shaping five collections into the one book of Psalms. The process of editing the Psalter into one book took place over time and was completed following the exile to Babylon. There are several markers of this editorial activity:
1. The editors placed Psalms 1 and 2 as an introduction to the whole book of Psalms. Both psalms give idealized portraits: Psalm 1 portrays the ideal godly person who lives by God’s instruction. Psalm 2 portrays the Messiah, the ideal king of Israel. The rest of the Psalter develops and deepens these portraits, while at the same time exploring how neither the people of God nor their king were able to fulfill God’s ideals and bring about the happiness and peace of God’s kingdom.
2. Individual psalms were collected in groups. The editors arranged these groupings of psalms into five collections: Book One (Pss 1–41, with a doxology in 41:13), Book Two (Pss 42–72, with a doxology in 72:19), Book Three (Pss 73–89, with a doxology in 89:52), Book Four (Pss 90–106, with a doxology in 106:48), and Book Five (Pss 107–150, without a doxology).
3. Books One (Pss 1–41) and Two (Pss 42–72) form the first stage of the collection. The shift from David in Book One (Pss 3–32; 34–41) to collections of psalms by various authors in Book Two (the descendants of Korah, Pss 42–49; Asaph, Ps 50; David, Pss 51–65; 68–70; Solomon, Ps 72) reveals a thematic transition from David as the sole model and teacher to other perspectives. At the end of Book Two, the editor comments, “This ends the prayers of David son of Jesse” (72:20). This comment remained in place even when Books Three, Four, and Five (with additional psalms of David) were added to the collection.
4. Book Three (Pss 73–89) shares with Book Two its preference of the name Elohim for God (Pss 42–83) and its diversity of authors (Asaph, Pss 73–83; the descendants of Korah, Pss 84–85; 87–88; David, Ps 86). Psalm 73, which opens Book Three, questions God’s justice and power, thus calling into doubt the magnificent vision of the messianic kingdom outlined in the final psalm of Book Two (Ps 72). This questioning returns in Psalm 89, at the close of Book Three.
5. The psalms of Book Four (Pss 90–106) wrestle with questions raised at the time of the Exile, when it seemed that God’s covenant with David had been dissolved (see Ps 89). In response to this crisis, several psalms encourage individual growth in character and godliness (see Pss 91–92). Most psalms in this collection present God as the true and faithful king whose kingdom extends to every part of creation (Pss 93–100). He still loves his people, the flock of his pasture (Ps 100), but they have to listen to him (Pss 95; 100). God is the source of forgiveness, and his compassion assures his exiled people that he still cares for them. The review of redemption history from creation to the Exile (Pss 104–106) underscores both God’s wisdom and Israel’s folly as a framework for understanding the Exile.
6. The benediction of Psalm 106:48 is also included in 1 Chronicles 16:36 and might indicate that Book Four was completed in the postexilic era (when Chronicles was compiled).
7. Book Five (Pss 107–150) includes a number of smaller collections: the Egyptian Hallel (Pss 113–118); the Torah Psalm (Ps 119); the Great Hallel (Pss 120–136), which includes the Songs of Ascents (Pss 120–134); eight psalms of David (Pss 138–145); and five concluding hymns of praise (Pss 146–150). Book Five sets out the thematic progression of affliction, lament, God’s rescue, and praise. The opening psalm (Ps 107) begins this pattern, and its final verse (107:43) points to the importance of wisdom in discerning God’s ways. Psalm 119, the longest psalm, celebrates the wisdom of God and the word of God. The psalms recounting the Lord’s historic care for Israel in the wilderness (Pss 114–118; 135–136) prepare exilic and postexilic Israel to read David’s final prayers (Pss 138–145) in a new light: David looked forward to God’s kingdom (Ps 145). The psalms of praise affirm this hope (Pss 146–150).
8. Additions appear to have been made to already-existing psalms. This may explain the prayer for the restoration of Zion (51:18-19) and for God’s blessing on Jerusalem (69:34-36). Changes in circumstances may have occasioned the addition of new stanzas.
9. The available manuscripts reveal some flexibility in the organization and titles of the psalms. Both the Hebrew and Greek editions of the Psalter contain 150 psalms, but with differing divisions and numbering as well as differences regarding which psalms have titles. The Greek text combines both Psalms 9 and 10 and Psalms 114 and 115 into one psalm each, but it splits both Psalms 116 and 147 into two. Differences between the Hebrew and English numbering are indicated in the notes.
By the time of Jesus, the collected Psalter was well known (see Luke 20:42; Acts 1:20). It was part of the third section of the Hebrew canon, called the Writings (see Luke 24:44).
Authorship
Many of the psalms are associated with David, but not all; in fact, less than half are explicitly connected with him. Others are connected with Asaph (Pss 50; 73–83), the descendants of Korah (Pss 42–49; 84–85; 87), Solomon (Pss 72; 127), Heman (Ps 88), Ethan (Ps 89), and Moses (Ps 90).
Of the 116 psalms with a title, most identify a person who is linked to that psalm. The person named may be the author, but not necessarily. The Hebrew preposition le before the name (often translated “of”) can also mean “for,” “dedicated to,” “concerning,” “to,” or “by.” So, ledawid (often translated “of David”) could be interpreted as “for David,” “dedicated to David,” “concerning David,” or “by David.” While many psalms “of David” may have been written by him, there are several reasons for caution. The titles occasionally have two names, such as David and Jeduthun or Asaph (Pss 39, 62, 77). It is possible that the other individual was the actual author of the psalm. Furthermore, the psalms whose titles connect them with an episode of David’s life (Pss 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142) provide little or no specific connection with those episodes. For example, the title in Psalm 51 connects the psalm with David’s sin and Nathan’s rebuke. The psalm speaks of sin, forgiveness, and a broken spirit, but any specifics of the situation are notoriously absent. In addition, several psalms “of David” seem to assume the existence of the Temple, which was not constructed until after David’s death (see Ps 5:7; 122:title; 138:2). Similarly, the title of Psalm 30 connects David with the dedication of the Temple, and Psalm 69 does not seem to fit with what is known of David’s life. Finally, some textual traditions vary in the mention of David in the heading (e.g., Pss 122, 124). It is possible, therefore, that ledawid should be understood in many cases as meaning “for/dedicated to/concerning David” rather than “by David.” Such psalms evoke his persona as the chief representative of the dynasty without implying that he himself was the author. Still, there are many psalms that could have been authored by David.
Literary Issues
The title Psalms comes from the Greek word psalmos (“song”; see Luke 20:42; 24:44), which translates the Hebrew mizmor, a word frequently found in the titles of individual psalms (e.g., see Ps 3:title, translated “psalm”). The word mizmor is related to a verb meaning “to play a stringed instrument.” The psalms were originally accompanied by instruments and were part of the oral tradition of Israel before they were collected. The Hebrew title of the Psalter is tehillim (“praises”), a word that is related to hallelujah (“praise Yahweh”).
Psalm Titles. The psalm titles, or short superscriptions accompanying most of the psalms, give information such as the author, the type of psalm (e.g., song, prayer), a musical notation, the use of the psalm, a historical context, or a dedication. Much of the information is not well understood, so many scholars do not emphasize the psalm titles in the interpretation of the psalms.
In Hebrew editions, the psalm titles are typically numbered as verse 1. As a result, the verse numbers for many entire psalms differ by one from most English translations.
Interlude (Hebrew Selah). This word is found throughout the book of Psalms. The meaning of the word is uncertain, though it is probably a musical or literary term. In the NLT it is consistently rendered Interlude.
Groupings of the Psalms. The psalms can be grouped in a number of ways:
• By the names they use for God: Yahweh (“the Lord,” Pss 1–41) and Elohim (“God,” Pss 42–72).
• By the names in the titles: David (Pss 3–32; 34:1–41:13, etc.), the descendants of Korah (Pss 42–49; 84:1–85:13; 87:1–88:18), and Asaph (Pss 50, 73-83).
• By genre (see below).
• By the collections of which they are already a part: e.g., the Songs of Ascents (Pss 120–134). Other collections were recognized in Jewish tradition, such as the Egyptian Hallel (Pss 113–118) and the hallelujah hymns (Pss 146–150).
• By thematic connections: e.g., God’s kingship (Pss 93–100), or the storyline from creation to the Exile (Pss 104–106).
Genres of the Psalms. The psalm titles often designate the genre of a psalm. The most frequent genre designation in the titles is the Hebrew term mizmor, referring to a song originally accompanied by stringed instruments. Less frequent are the words maskil (meaning “psalm” or “chant”: Pss 32; 42; 44-45; 52-55; 74; 88–89), miktam (“psalm” or “chant”: Pss 16; 56-60), shir (“song”: Pss 45; 120-135), shiggayon (“psalm,” a generic or musical term: Ps 7), tepillah (“prayer”: Pss 17; 86; 90), tehillah (“psalm of praise”: Ps 145), higgayon (“meditation,” meaning unknown: Ps 9:16), and todah (“psalm of thanksgiving”: Ps 100).
In addition to the genre identifications that are found in the Hebrew text, the psalms may be divided into three main categories:
1. Wisdom or instructional psalms (Pss 1, 15, 24, 33, 34, 37, 73, 90, 107)
2. Psalms of lament (most psalms in books 1—3), which can be subdivided into individual laments and community laments
3. Hymns of praise or thanksgiving (Pss 8, 19, 29, 65, 67, 114), which can similarly be divided into individual and community hymns
The psalms of praise include several subgenres, including “royal” psalms about the king (Pss 2, 45, 72, 89, 110); psalms ascribing kingship to the Lord (Pss 93, 95-99); hymns about creation (Pss 19, 29, 104); and hymns about Zion (Pss 46, 48, 84, 87).
Another way of reading the psalms is based on the movement in many psalms from instruction to a problem and from a problem to a renewal in commitment and character. The Psalter as a collection of five books is largely instructional in nature. It is “instruction” (torah; see 1:2) and has the purpose of teaching God’s people how to live.
The Psalms in Israel’s Worship
The book of Psalms contains much information on music making in ancient Israel. The majority of psalms are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. Some of the psalms were used on specific occasions, such as at Passover (Pss 113–118, or when journeying to Jerusalem for the annual festivals (Pss 120–134. There are also historic odes that relate great national events (for example, Ps 30, “a song for the dedication of the Temple,” and Ps 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity). Such psalms played a role in the life of the community; however, the exact nature of that role is uncertain.
Meaning and Message
The psalms provide windows into the souls of the ancient saints who wrote them. Their theological reflections are not easy or simple-minded, but the psalmists’ faith, when tried, is purified.
The psalms model depth of character, wisdom, honesty, and authenticity. But the prayers in the Psalter are more than models to be imitated. They are God’s instructions for righteous living, part of his torah (“instruction”; see Pss 1; 19; 119). God teaches who he is, what he has done, and what he expects from his people. The psalms are God-centered, instructing his people to discern error in themselves, to receive his correction, and to be like him. They also encourage God’s people to worship him vibrantly and to bear witness about him to the world.
The psalmists reflected on the transitory nature of life, on suffering, and on the many kinds of adversity that human beings experience. As the psalmists faced alienation and pain, they longed for God’s presence, provision, and protection (e.g., Ps 23), and for a lasting glory. Even the psalms connected with David often reveal a humble rather than a victorious David—humiliated rather than glorious. The psalmists experienced alienation and shame, and they longed for redemption, trusting in the Lord to vindicate them.
The Psalter illustrates the failures of Israel and of David’s dynasty. The best of the godly Israelites and kings were unable to bring the happiness and peace that Psalms 1 and 2 speak of (see also Ps 72). The psalms are thus God’s exhortation to each person to cultivate wisdom, to trust in him, to live by grace, and to have hope in the one who can bring blessings to a needy world.
The psalms prepare God’s people for the coming of Jesus Christ as the perfect human and ideal king, the descendant of David who has absolute integrity. Jesus and the apostles understood Jesus’ life and ministry in light of the psalms (see Matt 13:34-35; 21:16, 42; 23:39; John 2:17; 15:25; 19:24, 28, 36; Acts 2:22-35; 4:11; 13:32-38; Rom 15:3; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Eph 4:7-10; 1 Pet 2:7). Jesus entered the world of humans and lived out the patterns found in the psalms, including humiliation, suffering, death, vindication, and glory. He is the only human being who has completely pleased God (Ps 1). He is the Messiah and King (Ps 2) who has become our means of redemption, happiness, and peace.
Pr.1.1-31.31
Each day, life confronts us with many decisions. The book of Proverbs is a compass that helps us navigate the murky waters of life. It provides wisdom, instructions for living, and guidance for achieving strong character. Proverbs tells us how to succeed in any situation by remaining calm-headed in a crisis, patient when pressed, gentle when challenged, and firm when confronted with temptation. Above all, Proverbs shows us that the source of all wisdom is a right relationship with God.
Setting
Proverbs is a collection of sayings from various times and social contexts. Many individual proverbs find their primary setting in the royal court, addressing matters such as how to act in front of a king. Some proverbs have a family setting and best fit an agricultural context. Others pertain to the world of commerce, trade, and business. Much of Proverbs is directed toward a young man who seems to be at the age of beginning a profession. Proverbs offers wisdom and guidance for success in all the spheres of life that a person in ancient Israel might face. Yet it is also timeless, with significant application to readers today.
Summary
Proverbs is ancient Israel’s anthology of wise sayings, advice, instructions, and warnings. The book has two major sections: It begins with talks that a father gives to his son (chs 1–9). These are followed by collections of wise sayings (chs 10–31) from a variety of authors on a wide range of topics; most frequently mentioned are wealth and poverty, planning, laziness, prostitutes, hard work, relationships, pride, and humility.
Genre and Style
Wise Sayings. In the ancient Near East, wise sayings were collected into anthologies for people to consult for guidance on a correct course of action. In Israel, as in neighboring nations, the purpose of these collections was to educate the young and give them direction for living well. Evidence suggests that Babylonian and Egyptian wisdom collections were incorporated in the curriculum of schools.
A proverb expresses an insight, observation, or piece of advice that has been popularly accepted as general truth. Often, uttering the right proverb at the appropriate time is all it takes to resolve a discussion.
Hebrew Poetry. Proverbs is also poetry. Its compact language holds a lot of content in few words. It is literature that rewards reflective time and meditation on its rich nuances. Many proverbs teach through poetic imagery. For example, laziness is discouraged through the use of a comparison with common irritants:
Lazy people irritate their employers,
like vinegar to the teeth or smoke in the eyes (10:26).
One important characteristic of Hebrew poetry is parallelism. Many proverbs use synonymous parallelism—the second part continues and sharpens the thought of the first part:
The king is pleased with words from righteous lips;
he loves those who speak honestly (16:13).
Other proverbs are antithetical, meaning that the first and second parts are opposites:
A wise woman builds her home,
but a foolish woman tears it down with her own hands (14:1).
Still other proverbs make comparisons:
Better to have little, with fear for the Lord,
than to have great treasure and inner turmoil (15:16).
Awareness of these elements of Hebrew poetry enhances one’s ability to understand and interpret the proverbs.
Authorship
Proverbs was begun by Solomon (1:1), a wise king (1 Kgs 3:5-15) who collected wise sayings and composed his own (1 Kgs 4:29-32). Material written or edited by later teachers was then added. For example, two hundred years after Solomon, “the advisers of King Hezekiah of Judah” collected additional proverbs of Solomon and added them to the anthology (Prov 25:1). Other composers or editors mentioned in Proverbs include Agur (30:1), Lemuel (31:1), and “the wise” (22:17; 24:23).
Some of the sayings are influenced by neighboring nations, such as the “thirty sayings” of the wise (22:17–24:22), which appear to have borrowed heavily from an Egyptian writing called The Instruction of Amenemope (around 1100 BC). Proverbs was edited to its final form several hundred years after Solomon’s time.
Readers
Proverbs 1:8–9:18 contains a series of discourses from a father to a son. There is some debate as to whether this was a biological son or an apprentice since the recipient of the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope was an apprentice. However, the presence of the “mother” in Proverbs (e.g., 1:8) suggests a biological son.
Much of the material is more appropriate for young males than for women (such as warnings to avoid immoral women), yet Proverbs has a much broader audience than just young men. Its purpose is to teach wisdom to people (1:2), both to the simple (1:4) and to the wise (1:5). Proverbs is addressed to everyone—but not everyone will receive it (1:7).
Meaning and Message
Proverbs is a book of practical wisdom for life. It often takes the form of a father teaching his son. As the son walks the path of life, he will come to crossroads where he must make decisions about which way to go.
The book of Proverbs helps us to make right choices today. It teaches that there are rewards for wise behavior and punishments for foolish behavior. But while these rewards motivate us to heed instruction, they are not universal promises. Proverbs offers principles that are generally true, but these principles do not always guarantee a favorable outcome. For example, a person who works hard and has integrity is likely to have more material resources than a lazy and shiftless person. However, a lazy person might inherit wealth, and a hard worker might lose wealth when exploited by a corrupt government official. (This disjunction between righteousness and material reward is a major theme of Job and Ecclesiastes.)
The advice of Proverbs sometimes seems to contradict itself, but wisdom and careful reading reveal the circumstances to which each piece of advice applies. Should we answer a fool’s arguments? Or should we be silent when we realize that we are arguing with a fool (26:4-5)? It depends. We find the same thing with English aphorisms. On some occasions “Look before you leap” applies; other times we are reminded that “He who hesitates is lost.” Contradictory sayings might both be true in different situations. The truly wise person knows when to apply a particular proverb and when not to.
The wisdom of Proverbs is practical, but the sayings contain much more than good advice. Real wisdom is based on a reverent, faith-filled relationship with God, who is the true source of all wisdom. This message is expressed in 1:7: “Fear of the Lord is the foundation of true knowledge.” Proverbs invokes a fundamental spiritual choice, because there is no true wisdom apart from a living relationship with God.
Eccl.1.1-12.14
Ecclesiastes challenges us to think deeply about basic questions. Life and all it contains appears to be a meaningless vapor, here today and gone tomorrow. Even so, life need not be without purpose. Ecclesiastes recommends wisdom, righteous living, finding purpose in remembering our Creator, and keeping God’s commands. Then we can experience joy in the life God has given us.
Setting
When Israel was in its golden years of peace after David had established his empire, Solomon devoted time and energy to enhancing culture. He developed international commerce, diplomacy, and agriculture, and he built cities, fortresses, and the Temple. He advanced his nation culturally with material prosperity and profound literature. Rather than war against other nations, Solomon engaged them and their literature and incorporated their modes of cultural expression into Israel’s relationship with the Lord. Solomon’s failures are well known, but he accomplished much good with his wisdom, and he left his instructions on managing life wisely.
Summary
The book of Ecclesiastes is a discourse or set of discourses exploring the value of life and all it contains and what people should do. The collection is bound by the editor’s very brief prologue (1:1) and his epilogue and conclusion (12:9-14). Within this framework are the words of “the Teacher” (Hebrew Qoheleth, which is how most commentators refer to him).
The Teacher explores a wide range of topics, such as time, work, wisdom, pleasure, and injustice. He repeatedly returns to one major theme: Life and all it contains is hebel (“vapor,” often translated “meaningless”). He discusses how humans should deal with life circumstances in a world that is under God’s sovereign rule. This discussion is summed up by the editor at the close of the book: “Here now is my final conclusion: Fear God and obey his commands, for this is everyone’s duty. God will judge us for everything we do, including every secret thing, whether good or bad” (12:13-14).
Author and Recipients
The main speaker is identified as a king, as “the Teacher,” and as David’s son (see 1:1, 12, 16; 2:7, 9); these labels strongly point to Solomon. His speech is framed within the opening and closing comments of an editor (1:1; 12:9-14), who reveres the wise Teacher and adds a bit of his own helpful advice.
The term translated “the Teacher” (Hebrew Qoheleth) is literally “[the one who] gathers an assembly or congregation.” This idea is expressed in the Greek title of the book, Ecclesiastes (from Greek ekklēsia, “assembly, congregation”). On at least one occasion, Solomon addressed an assembly of leaders and representatives of Israel’s tribes (see 2 Chr 5:2–7:7). We are also told that many kings and ambassadors came to hear Solomon speak because of his wisdom (1 Kgs 4:34; 10:23-24). Perhaps the content of Ecclesiastes was delivered publicly on one or more such occasions.
Ecclesiastes as Wisdom Literature
Ecclesiastes is one of the wisdom books, along with Job and Proverbs. Wisdom literature emphasizes pleasing God beyond the requirements of the law. These books identify ways for God’s people to be successful as individuals and to enhance the general success of society. The Teacher in Ecclesiastes speaks of wisdom as a general understanding of how God and the world work, learned through lifelong investigation. His conclusions are the subject of his lecture.
Meaning and Message
In this discourse, the Teacher addresses the most significant question of life: Is anything ultimately meaningful? If we are a momentary shadow or a fleeting breath, how can our lives have meaning?
The Teacher contextualizes this philosophical question within the real world of government and everyday life through which administrators and ordinary citizens must navigate. His message is unified, and the editor summarizes its implications (12:13-14): Life and all it contains is fleeting and apparently fraught with futility. Everything in this world is temporary, and life’s frustrations could lead to the conclusion that it is meaningless. What we do doesn’t last, and we can’t find meaning in the world itself. We will soon die and be forgotten, so we should remember how short our lives are and enjoy them while we can. But these realities of a fallen world need not engender despair because we also live in a world that is ruled by God, and it has meaning and purpose in reference to him. We should focus on keeping his commands and living to please him because we will soon stand before him for judgment.
The wisdom of Ecclesiastes is in coping with and even thriving in this life despite its brevity and apparent futility. Although we cannot comprehend all of God’s actions or the purpose of our lives, Ecclesiastes assures us that our sovereign God has a strong hand in all that happens, both positive and tragic. Those who trust God will take the apparent futility of life as an incentive to diligently and wisely achieve what they can while they are alive and to enjoy God’s good gifts in the process.
Song.1.1-8.14
The Song of Songs is romantic poetry at its best. It portrays two passionate lovers who revel in the emotional and physical pleasures of human intimacy. The book was misunderstood in the past as being only an allegory of the relationship between God and the church, but is now accepted as celebrating the profound love between a man and a woman, providing a refreshingly realistic and wholesome treatment of human sexuality without being a how-to manual. The book never mentions God, but it bears witness that the Creator has graciously provided his human creatures with the good gifts of sexuality and intimate love.
Setting
As a song of mutual human love, the Song of Songs is unique in the Bible. It is composed of the speeches of its characters, primarily an unnamed young man and an unnamed young woman. There is no narrator. Though the subject matter is not unique in the Old Testament, the intense and exclusive focus on it certainly is. Other ancient Near Eastern literature, primarily Egyptian, has similar songs of admiration and intense desire in which the lover’s physical attributes are extolled and direct invitations to enjoy them are given.
The Song of Songs is associated with Solomon, David’s son and the third king of Israel (see “Authorship” below; see also 1:1). Solomon is also mentioned in a few of the poems, both negatively and positively. The motivation of the author was apparently to celebrate God’s good gift of love and sexuality.
Authorship
The superscription (first line of text) calls the work, literally, “The Song of Songs of Solomon.” Many take this to mean that Solomon wrote the book in its entirety.
One difficulty with viewing Solomon as the only author is that some of the Hebrew words appear to be foreign loanwords from Aramaic and Persian, which would have presumably come from a later era than that of Solomon, when Persian culture was more widespread. However, it is possible that these words were in use during Solomon’s era. Solomon was the first truly cosmopolitan king of Israel, so it would not be surprising if he used foreign loanwords.
Another problem with accepting Solomon as the sole author is that he was not a good example of godly love—it was precisely his love for many foreign women that led him away from the Lord (1 Kgs 11:1-13). In fact, the only positive reference to Solomon in the Song is in Song 3:6-11; meanwhile, 8:11-12 presents him negatively and 1:5 is neutral. It is possible that Solomon did not compose the entire Song, but only part of it—especially if the Song is viewed as a poetic anthology. In this view, Solomon’s authorship of the Song might be similar to his authorship in the book of Proverbs and David’s authorship in the Psalms. On the other hand, Solomon might have written of himself in a self-deprecating tone.
Interpreting the Song
Serious study of the Song of Songs requires a humble, open spirit because of two very significant matters that are usually straightforward in other biblical books but are very obscure here: (1) It is difficult to find a story line in these eight chapters, and (2) if the Song is a story, it is not easy to identify the main characters and their relationships.
Early Interpretation (up to the 1800s). The earliest surviving comments on the Song, provided by Rabbi Aqiba around AD 100, demonstrate Judaism’s ambivalence about the message of the Song. The rabbi famously stated: “Whoever sings the Song of Songs with a tremulous voice in a banquet hall and [so] treats it as a sort of ditty has no share in the world to come.” Some people clearly understood the Song’s imagery as sexual. Aqiba censured this interpretation of the Song, even damning those who held it. Aqiba declared, “All the ages are not worth the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; for all the Writings are holy, but the Song of Songs is the Holy of Holies.” Aqiba thus indicated his understanding of the book as an allegory. The man and the woman are not seen as a real man and woman, but as representing God and Israel. Likewise, the Aramaic Targum (interpretive paraphrase) of the Song presents it as the story of God’s relationship with Israel from the Exodus to the future reign of the Messiah.
This allegorical view represents the predominant Jewish and Christian interpretation of the Song from Aqiba’s time through the mid-1800s. Early Christian interpreters, such as Origen (AD 185–253) and Jerome (AD 347–420), adopted the allegorical interpretation but identified the man as Jesus Christ and the woman as the individual Christian or the church as a whole. Although the details regarding the individual elements within the book varied greatly among Jewish and Christian interpreters, allegorical interpretation was determinative. The allegorical interpretation of the Song is found in Catholic writers as well as in the writings of the Reformers, including John Calvin, John Wesley, and the Westminster Assembly.
Recent Interpretations (1800s to the present). In the 1800s the allegorical interpretation began to lose followers. It became increasingly clear that the only reason to deny the Song’s obvious references to sexuality was the deep-seated but unbiblical idea that physical love and spiritual life are polar opposites. This idea came more from Greek philosophy than from the Bible itself. The Bible text itself never suggests that the images of the Song were intended as anything but sensual and romantic.
Furthermore, archaeology recovered much from the ancient cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Egypt produced love poetry similar to the Song that could only be understood as human love poetry.
There was thus a decisive shift from allegorical interpretation to an understanding of the Song as love poetry. Today it is generally agreed that the Song speaks God’s wisdom into this important area of our lives as human beings: It affirms and celebrates God’s good gift of love and sexuality in the context of marriage.
The Song as a Love Story. Many scholars understand these poems as a drama telling a story, either about two lovers or about a woman and two men. If only a couple is present, the characters are usually understood to be King Solomon and a young woman, and the entire poem is their conversation with each other. If it is a triangle, there is a second man whom the woman loves. In this case, Solomon is trying to force the woman to leave her true lover and enter his harem, but she remains faithful and true to her lover.
The main drawbacks of the dramatic perspective are: (1) There is no narrator to guide the reading of the story, and (2) there are many different possible stories, and every interpreter seems to see a different story.
The Song as a Two-Character Drama. Some interpreters understand the Song as a drama of King Solomon’s love affair with a woman. According to this view, the entire poem is a conversation between Solomon and the woman he loves more than all of the other queens and concubines in his harem.
If there was a favored woman in Solomon’s life, the Scriptures suggest that she was Pharaoh’s daughter, whom he married very early (1 Kgs 3:1; 7:8; 9:24; 11:1), not the working woman from the king’s flocks and vineyards who is pictured in the Song. Furthermore, this song of true love is not very credible if the woman was one of the scores of Solomon’s women who are mentioned in Song 6:8. In other words, if this romance between Solomon and the woman was of such deep sincerity, why did Solomon add hundreds of other women to his harem?
The Song as a Three-Character Drama. Noting the difficulties with the two-character story line, several recent scholars have become convinced that the Song actually describes a three-character drama. This would suggest a more complicated plot: The woman actually loves a shepherd, not the king, but unfortunately she finds herself in Solomon’s harem as a concubine, probably because she is unable to pay a debt of one thousand pieces of silver, which she owes as caretaker of the king’s vineyards (8:11-12). She is unable to pay because her angry brothers have forced her to take care of vineyards other than her own (1:6). So even though she is in the very close and potentially intimate presence of the king in the city palace (1:12), her passionate thoughts are set intently on her love for a common shepherd in the countryside (1:7). This fervent affection drives her to escape with her true love into the country where they declare their mutual love to one another in marriage. Three separations of the couple are recounted in the song, and the agony of isolation from each other is just as intense as their ecstasy when together. After the woman escapes and lives with her shepherd husband, she is able to hire caretakers to harvest her crop and pay off the debt to Solomon. Now she and her beloved are forever free to continue living and loving together in the countryside (8:12-14).
The Song as an Anthology of Love Poetry. Some scholars have concluded that approaching the Song as a drama imposes a story on the book that is not really there. These interpreters believe that the Song of Songs is an anthology of love poems that do not tell a story, but rather evoke a mood. The poems use imagery to express the poets’ understanding of human sexuality. In this way, the Song is similar to the book of Psalms, except that all the poems have to do with love between a man and a woman.
From this perspective, the Song of Songs is composed of some twenty love poems that are bound together by consistency of characters, refrains, repeated images, and other poetic binding devices.
The main criticism of viewing the Song as merely a poetic anthology is that the Song exhibits a greater unity and development than is usual for such a collection. There is repetition and development of poetic themes, and there seems to be growth in the couple’s relationship. Those who view the Song as a story or drama would argue that the anthology view fails to take this into account. Even if the Song is not a story per se, it certainly seems to have a structure and coherence that transcends the individual stanzas of poetry. However, those who view it as an anthology rather than a story generally do take into account the unity and development in the Song. They view the Song like a concerto or symphony in which themes repeat and build without actually uncovering a narrative or plot.
Conclusion. Each of these interpretive approaches has its challenges. The approach of the study notes here is (1) to point out different elements in the book that might contribute to a story line or to our understanding of its structure as an anthology and (2) to discuss the possible meaning of individual scenes and images.
Marriage in the Song
The man and woman in the Song of Songs speak in the most romantic terms, describing sensuous longings and alluding to an intimate physical relationship. However, they are never explicitly described as married, leading some readers to suggest that the Song is an example of unmarried love in the Bible. Such a reading ignores obvious allusions to the true marriage relationship between the man and the woman. The language of some of the passages clearly indicates that the couple is married. For example, the man occasionally refers to the woman as his “bride” (e.g., 4:8-12).
Even more importantly, viewing the couple as unmarried though sexually intimate does not take into account the context of the Song. In the context of ancient Israel, it is essentially unfathomable that this couple would not be married when engaged in such an intimate relationship. A study of Old Testament history (see Gen 39), law (see Exod 20:14), and wisdom literature (see Prov 5–7) makes it clear that sexual relations were only tolerated within the legal commitment of marriage. It would be quite strange for this book to be preserved alongside the other books of Jewish Scripture if it promoted sexual activity outside of marriage. Thus it is most natural to understand this couple as being married, at least in those passages where they are found in intimate embrace.
Meaning and Message
Many people have questioned whether the Song of Songs, with its overtly sensual imagery, belongs in Holy Scripture. But this poem is a wonderful celebration of one of God’s good and holy gifts. The Bible does not envision human beings as intangible souls temporarily encased in a body; rather, body and soul are interconnected aspects of a single entity. The body is important, and sexuality is sacred and good when enjoyed within marriage.
Human Intimacy. Intense love and the appropriateness of voicing that love in words of physical attraction and fulfillment is the central theme of the Song. Yet it is clear that the lovers’ relationship is not merely physical. While their relationship certainly includes the sensual enjoyment of each other, it also includes friendship and a desire to be with each other for more than sexual reasons.
As human love poetry, the Song plays a crucial role in the Bible. Love and its physical expression are major aspects of the human experience, and God has spoken through the Song to encourage us and warn us about the power of sexuality in our lives. Here we have wonderful wisdom from God describing the beauty of a wholesome sexual relationship between a woman and a man. According to the Song, sexual intimacy in marriage should be mutual, exclusive, complete, and beautiful. The book encourages intimate, passionate love between a man and a woman who have committed themselves to each other.
Isa.1.1-66.24
Can God rescue us from the problems we face? Can he save us from oppressive world powers? Can he break the power of our sin and help us deal with its consequences? Isaiah answers these questions with a resounding yes! The prophet’s words sometimes overwhelm us with their beauty. At other times, his piercing words reveal our sin and drive us to our knees. Isaiah’s own ministry began with a vision of the love, greatness, and holiness of God. This vision—along with the entire book of Isaiah—convicts the human heart, motivating us to trust in our Creator alone for forgiveness, restoration, and purpose in life.
Setting
By the time of King Uzziah’s death (740 BC), the southern kingdom of Judah faced a major crisis. The empire of Assyria, dormant for nearly fifty years, was now on the move again. The Assyrian army progressed southwestward from their homeland in what is now northern Iraq toward their ultimate destination, Egypt. The small nations of the Mediterranean coast, including Israel and Judah, stood in Assyria’s path. Assyria had taken Galilee and much of Israel’s territory east of the Jordan River. But they would be satisfied only with total control of Israel, Judah, and all the other smaller nations in the area.
While Judah’s King Uzziah was still alive, Judah was able to ignore the crisis. Overall, Uzziah was a good and effective king, he had a strong army (2 Chr 26:11-15), and his people hoped that he could somehow save the nation from the Assyrians. When Uzziah died, however, ungodly rulers succeeded him. During this crisis of leadership, God gave Isaiah the vision that launched his ministry and guided him for the next forty years (Isa 6).
Assyria, meanwhile, pushed steadily southward along the coast of the Mediterranean, conquering one small nation after another. During this time, Judah’s policy on Assyria oscillated between appeasement and confrontation. The prophet Isaiah brought a much-needed message: God is absolutely dependable, and it is utter folly to trust in anything or anyone other than God.
Unfortunately, Isaiah’s central message was not always heeded. Around 734 BC, Israel formed a coalition with Syria to stand against Assyria. When King Ahaz of Judah refused to join this alliance, Israel and Syria attacked Judah in order to force Ahaz to join them. Faced with this crisis, Ahaz foolishly called the Assyrians to rescue him (2 Chr 28:16-21) rather than trusting God (Isa 7:1-12). Although the king of Assyria did defeat Syria and Israel, he also subjugated Judah and laid on it a heavy burden of taxation. Just a few years later (722 BC), Assyria defeated the kingdom of Israel again and sent most of its people into exile (2 Kgs 17:5-18).
In 701 BC, during King Hezekiah’s reign, Assyria again invaded Judah. This time, Judah relied on God’s faithfulness, and as promised, God rescued the nation from the Assyrian army (37:21-36).
Regrettably, God’s people did not remain faithful to him. As a result, God eventually allowed Judah to be overcome by Assyria’s successor, Babylon (605–586 BC). What would Judah’s destruction and exile to Babylon mean in terms of God’s absolute reliability, which Isaiah had proclaimed? Isaiah answered this as well: God would indeed punish Judah’s wickedness. But he would also preserve a remnant that one day would return to the holy land. This return would not be due to any faithfulness on their part; it would be an act of God’s grace.
Upon returning from exile (538 BC; see Ezra 1:1-4), the people were again tempted to wickedness, this time by the paganism that had taken root in their homeland during their absence. Isaiah showed that the gracious God who rescued them is also the holy God who demanded their obedience, righteousness, and exclusive devotion.
Summary
Isaiah 1–39 covers the period from the death of Uzziah (740 BC) to 701 BC. The introduction (chs 1–5) contrasts Judah’s present state of sin and injustice with the blessed existence in God’s presence that they had originally been called to. This comparison raises a question: How can the present corruption ever be transformed into glory, purity, and fruitfulness? The prophet answers in chapter 6, as he recounts his own renewal and calling as an example of how a change could take place nationwide. If Judah wanted to experience such renewal, however, it needed to turn from its sinful ways and learn to trust God. Throughout chapters 13–35 the prophet uses a variety of literary forms and life situations to confirm that God is the only truly trustworthy one; relying on any of the surrounding nations in place of God represents extreme foolishness. Isaiah brackets this message with two historical accounts of experiences with Assyria: King Ahaz’s experience in chapters 7–12, and King Hezekiah’s in chapters 36–39. When Ahaz failed to trust God, disaster resulted. By contrast, his son Hezekiah trusted God, and a great rescue occurred. Hezekiah, however, also had times of weakness (ch 39), setting the stage for Judah’s later defeat and exile by Babylon.
Isaiah 40–55 addresses the questions that would arise during Judah’s exile to Babylon in 586 BC. Does the Exile mean that God was defeated, either by the Babylonians or by Judah’s sin? Has God’s purpose for Judah been frustrated, and is he helpless to do anything about it? In chapters 40–48, Isaiah shows that God is infinitely superior to any idol-god, and his people will be the proof of this when God rescues them out of Babylon’s ultimately helpless hands. In chapters 49–55, the prophet addresses the deeper question of Judah’s sin. Just as God rescued Judah from Babylon, he also intends to rescue a remnant of the people from the enslaving power of sin; he will accomplish this through the death of his servant.
Isaiah 56–66 addresses Judah’s experience following the end of their exile in 539 BC. God had rescued a remnant from exile as promised; now they needed to be pure, righteous, and holy. God’s servants must not continue to walk in darkness and corruption, for those attitudes and actions had led to exile in the first place. As Isaiah speaks of rescue from sin, the light of God’s own holy and righteous character dawns in his people. As a result, all the nations that Israel once trusted in place of God will now come to Jerusalem to learn God’s ways from Israel.
Authorship
The book of Isaiah addresses three different historical situations, two of them beyond the prophet’s own lifetime. As a result, many scholars have argued that the prophet Isaiah could not have written the entire book; this view has prevailed since the mid-1800s. However, if God’s inspiration is a reality, predictive prophecy is a real possibility, so it presents no problem that parts of the book address what was in the future for Isaiah. Furthermore, the book displays a remarkable literary unity. When Jesus and the New Testament authors quote from the book of Isaiah, they consistently claim that they are referring to what the prophet Isaiah said (see, e.g., Matt 8:17; 12:17-21; Luke 3:4-6; Acts 8:28-35; Rom 10:16).
Date of Writing
It seems likely from the historical references in chapters 6–39 that these materials were recorded at various times throughout the thirty-eight years between Uzziah’s death in 740 BC and Sennacherib’s retreat from Jerusalem in 701 BC. Because of the simpler, meditative, and reflective lyrical style of chapters 40–66, it seems probable that a period of time elapsed between 701 BC and the writing of these chapters. We do not know when Isaiah died, but tradition dates his death during the period of the sole reign of Manasseh (686–642 BC). It is thus possible that more than fifteen years elapsed between the writing of chapters 1–39 and the writing of chapters 40–66.
Literary Genres
Isaiah contains a rich array of sub-genres:
judgment speeches that warn Israel that God will punish them for their sins (9:8-21);
prophecies of woe that lament the approaching death of the nation (5:8-30; 29:1-12; 31:1-9);
parables that teach by analogy (5:1-8; 27:2-6);
trial speeches to prove a case (41:21-29);
salvation prophecies of hope for the future (2:1-5; 32:1-20; 60:1-22);
hymns of praise to God for his faithfulness (12:1-6; 26:1-6);
prophecies against foreign nations (15:1–16:14; 23:1-18);
prophecies of a coming king, the Messiah (9:1-7; 11:1-9);
servant songs about one who would suffer for the sins of others (42:1-9; 52:13–53:12); and
narratives of current events (36:1-22; 39:1-8).
Meaning and Message
The book of Isaiah could be called the Bible in miniature. It has more overtones of the New Testament than any other Old Testament book. Isaiah gives us a picture of God as unique and transcendent (beyond our experience). Yet the holy and exalted God reveals himself and desires to be Immanuel (“God is with us,” 7:14). Therefore, the transcendent God is also immanent (nearby). God’s nearness prepares Isaiah’s readers to receive God incarnate (in the flesh), Jesus Christ, who is truly the Immanuel (see Matt 1:21-23).
Isaiah tackles the foolishness of idolatry head on. He exposes the folly of trying to capture God in any created thing or trying to manipulate God to our own ends. The only way to receive the blessings God wants to pour out upon us is through our surrender and trust. However, the human spirit stubbornly opposes this. We would rather trust anything or anyone other than God, who is beyond our control. Those who stubbornly refuse to submit themselves to the true God and turn instead to false gods become estranged from God and face his judgment.
The prophet tells the story of God’s judgment on his sinful people through exile. However, God graciously returns to his people and declares that he will not cast them away altogether. Instead, he will purify and preserve a remnant that will glorify him among the nations and demonstrate that he alone is the true and living God.
God’s kingdom will be centered in a new Zion (new Jerusalem), populated by a new community of the faithful and ruled by God’s righteous servant, the Messiah. This kingdom will be built on the power of love rather than on the power of oppression and injustice. Only the righteous can belong to this new community. The same grace that rescues God’s people from the consequences of their sin also produces in them obedience to his will. As a result, they will glorify God and transform the world.
Jer.1.1-52.34
When God called Jeremiah to warn the kingdom of Judah of its impending destruction, the kingdom was relatively prosperous, free, and secure. But Judah’s fortunes dramatically changed as Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon asserted his power in the region. Judah suffered under his heavy hand for twenty years before he destroyed the city of Jerusalem and exiled its citizens to Babylon. Throughout these events, Jeremiah warned of judgment and destruction while distinctively recording his own experience of the pain and conflict these announcements brought. Jeremiah beautifully conveyed God’s passionate plea for his people to return to him and receive salvation, and he also proclaimed God’s promise to restore Israel.
Setting
During the decades before Jeremiah’s birth, Assyria dominated the ancient Near East, including Egypt for a time. King Manasseh of Judah became a vassal of Assyria, swore allegiance to Assyrian deities, and worshiped idols for most of his long reign (686–642 BC; see 2 Kgs 21:1-7). As a result, the kingdom of Judah became a spiritual wasteland (but see 2 Chr 33:10-17). Manasseh’s son Amon followed his father’s negative example during his brief reign (2 Kgs 21:21). When some of the palace servants in Jerusalem assassinated Amon (2 Kgs 21:23-24), the people quickly crowned Amon’s eight-year-old son, Josiah, as king of Judah.
Josiah served the Lord, rejecting his forebears’ support of paganism. In the twelfth year of his reign, he decreed that pagan idols and altars should be destroyed (2 Chr 34:3-7). In his eighteenth year on the throne, he funded the repair of the Temple so that the priests and people of Judah could worship the one true God (2 Chr 34:8). During these repairs, the Book of the Law, which had been forgotten during Manasseh’s reign, was recovered. It clearly described Judah’s sins, and its teachings became a basis for Jeremiah’BC, soon after the Book of the Law was found.
Josiah’s death in battle with the Egyptians in 609 BC (see 2 Kgs 23:29) spelled the end of revival in Judah and the beginning of the end of the nation. Between 612 and 605 BC, the Babylonians crushed the Assyrians and beat back the Egyptians; Judah’s security and prosperity ended as the Babylonians gained control of the region. Between 605 and 586 BC, King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon attacked, subjugated, and finally destroyed the kingdom of Judah and the city of Jerusalem.
During this time, Judah’s kings remained apostate from the Lord and refused to heed Jeremiah’s warnings. Josiah’s son, King Jehoiakim (609–598 BC), renewed pagan worship in Judah and relied on the Egyptians for support against the Babylonians; he was violently antagonistic to Jeremiah’s messages. His son Jehoiachin reigned for only three months at the beginning of 597 BC. When the Babylonians defeated Judah in April 597 BC, they replaced Jehoiachin with his uncle Zedekiah (597–586 BC), who reigned as a vassal of Babylon.
Zedekiah is depicted as weak and indecisive. He respected Jeremiah and often asked him for advice, but he lacked the courage to follow the Lord. Instead, Zedekiah followed the advice of his administrators and broke his covenant of service to the Babylonian king. As a result, the Babylonians laid siege to Jerusalem in January 588 BC. In July 586 BC they finally broke through the walls of Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple, and razed the city. Many people in Jerusalem were taken captive to Babylon, though a remnant remained in Judah—including Jeremiah, who recorded what happened to the remnant community during the days following Jerusalem’s destruction.
Summary
Chapter 1 (627 BC) tells how God chose Jeremiah as his messenger.
Chapters 2–20 (627–605 BC) establish the dynamic interactions between God, Jeremiah, and the people of Judah. Through Jeremiah, God severely criticized pagan worship in Judah, warned of invasion from the north, and pronounced severe punishment. In chapters 11–20, Jeremiah learns more about God’s purposes.
Chapters 21–29 (605–593 BC) focus on verbal battles that Jeremiah had with Judah’s kings, priests, and other prophets. Jeremiah’s messages include scathing criticisms of these vicious leaders.
Chapters 30–33 (596–588 BC) provide a bright spot as they emphasize the possibility of restoration for the people of Judah and envision a new covenant relationship between God and his people. The vision reaches into the future and announces a “righteous descendant” (33:15) who will bring salvation.
Chapters 34–45 (605–580 BC) tell of the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem, the breach of the city walls, and the complete destruction of the Temple, the city of Jerusalem, and the kingdom of Judah. Chapters 34–36 make it clear that the destruction was the result of Judah’s having broken its covenant with the Lord. Jeremiah then describes what occurred after the Babylonians left Judah (586–580 BC): Gedaliah the governor was assassinated, and the remaining people of Judah fled to Egypt despite Jeremiah’s warning not to.
Chapters 46–51 (605–593 BC) are an anthology of God’s judgments on Judah’s neighbors. Each of these nations, large and small, was to be punished for their idolatry and for their cruelty to God’s chosen people. A few nations were promised divine help in the future. Israel was promised deliverance from exile and restoration in the Promised Land.
Chapter 52 (586–561 BC) describes the last days of Jerusalem, essentially repeating 2 Kings 24:18–25:30.
Authorship and Date
In the fourth year of King Jehoiakim’s reign (605 BC), Jeremiah dictated a series of messages to Baruch, who wrote them on a scroll that was eventually delivered to the king (Jer 36:1-26). The king destroyed this scroll, but Jeremiah and Baruch rewrote the messages and “added much more!” (36:32). The contents of this second scroll probably make up chapters 2–20. Much of the rest of the book of Jeremiah appears to have been written later and added to the growing anthology. The book includes events down to Jeremiah’s arrival in Egypt, so it seems likely that the book was essentially complete by 580 BC.
Manuscripts
Two very different texts of Jeremiah have been preserved, representing two different collections of messages. The first, the Hebrew Masoretic Text, was preserved among the Babylonian exiles and underlies nearly all English translations of Jeremiah. The other text was preserved among the Egyptian refugees and became the basis of the Greek translation (the Septuagint), which was produced by Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt about 250 BC. The Septuagint text is about 2,700 words shorter than the Hebrew Masoretic Text, and it rearranges some of the material.
Literary Features
The Messenger System. The text of Jeremiah is dominated by a structure of communication called a “messenger system,” common in the royal governments of the ancient Near East and still in use today. The ruler of a country selected a person to deliver verbal and written messages to other countries. The messenger carried the authority of their ruler as they delivered the message. The recipient accepted or rejected the message and sent back a reply. If the recipient rejected the message, he might abuse the messenger and prepare for war (see 2 Sam 10:1-19). The messenger would report back to their ruler, who would decide how to respond.
Judicial Framework. Many of the messages in Jeremiah feature a judicial framework and vocabulary. The courtroom setting is established early in the book with the Lord’s statement, “I will bring my case against you. . . . I will even bring charges against your children’s children in the years to come” (Jer 2:9). The Lord assumes the roles of plaintiff, judge, and executioner. As plaintiff, he brings charges and evidence of sin against Judah. After the defendants express their arguments, the Lord pronounces the sentence as judge and then carries it out as executioner.
Narratives. Jeremiah contains historical narratives in which the prophet deals with kings, officials, priests, other prophets, and the common people in times of crisis. The book also includes many autobiographical narratives. Narrative sections often end with the pronouncement of a decree, usually in poetic form.
Meaning and Message
A battle raged in Old Testament Israel between pagan idol worship and worship of the Lord. Jeremiah repeatedly reminded the Israelites of their covenant with the Lord and that he required their true, heartfelt, and exclusive devotion. In a pivotal passage (Jer 10:1-16), Jeremiah clearly contrasts the foolishness of idolatry with the majesty, glory, purity, and power of the God of Israel.
The people of Jerusalem and Judah thus faced a major conflict. Jeremiah warned them that if they continued to worship pagan idols, they would lose their holy city and Temple, their loved ones, and their wealth and freedom. The people tried to escape their predicament through defiance, arrogance, alliances, and anger, but the events of war soon plunged them into utter despair and death. Even then, they seemed unable to choose another course of action. To cease believing in the magical power of idols and rituals and to give up the allure and excitement of pagan festivals and sexual freedom seemed too great a loss. The possibility that the Temple and Jerusalem might be destroyed was unthinkable. So only a few repented.
With passionate pleas, the Lord offered a way back to his gracious salvation. If the people would earnestly and completely remove the vicious and salacious practices of idolatry from their lives, submit to the Lord without reservation, and fulfill his ethical requirements, then the Lord would cease being angry and accept them as his people again. Even when the calamities of ruin, death, and exile became a reality, the Lord promised to preserve a remnant who would serve him. He promised to bring the captives back to their homeland and grant them peace and prosperity.
The brightest description of God’s mercy is found in chapters 30–33, which offer the promise of a new covenant and a new king. Instead of uprooting and tearing down, God would plant and rebuild (1:10; 31:28). However, only a few repented in Jeremiah’s days.
In all of this, the prophet Jeremiah experienced a deep tension between the Lord’s command (1:17-19) and his own desires. The Lord’s command was “Go . . . and tell,” whereas the prophet desired to keep peace with his neighbors (see 20:8-9). He felt a deep solidarity with his people, and the terrible words of judgment and destruction he was called to pronounce cut deeply into his own soul. More than any other Old Testament prophet, Jeremiah let us see his heart as he struggled to obey (15:16-18; cp. Matt 26:36-42).
Lam.1.1-5.22
Most of us have not experienced the death of our nation, and we know little of the agony of utter despair; but others in our world have experienced total devastation as their cities or nations have been destroyed by wars, earthquakes, tsunamis, or hurricanes. Reading the book of Lamentations can give us a point of entry into their experiences. It can help us to face the darkest aspects of human existence.
Setting
After a long siege, the Babylonian army breached Jerusalem’s defenses and took control. They deported many of the people of Judah to exile in Babylon, and they destroyed the city of Jerusalem, including the Temple of God. Only a few survivors remained in the land, including Jeremiah the prophet. Nothing else was left, and the hopes of God’s people were nearly dead.
Summary
The book of Lamentations is a collection of five highly structured and emotionally powerful poems that lament Jerusalem’s destruction.
Chapter 1 describes Jerusalem’s ruins. Jerusalem is personified as a once-famous princess who is now a wounded slave, lamenting the contrast between her past and present with intense agony and shame. She acknowledges that she has earned her distress, and she prays that the Lord will relieve her miserable condition.
Chapter 2 summarizes the shameful situation in Jerusalem. The author agonizes as he watches starving children, weeping mothers, lying prophets, and mocking enemies. This tragedy happened because God withdrew his mercy and kept his promise to judge his people when they sinned against him.
Chapter 3 is an eyewitness account of God’s wrath. The author is sickened by the carnage; he is without hope and crushed by shame. Then he realizes that God’s anger will not last forever, and hope floods his soul. God’s faithfulness, love, kindness, and goodness are the ultimate, saving reality. Yet the hurt remains, and tears flow abundantly as he prays.
Chapter 4 is a gloomy description of the devastation before and after the walls of Jerusalem were breached, in contrast to the city’s years of glory. God was justly punishing the vicious sins of his people, and they could not escape his judgment.
Chapter 5 is a prayer that asks God to carefully consider the people’s plight. It ends with a plea for salvation, if salvation is still available.
The first four of these poems are acrostics based on the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet, with each successive stanza beginning with the next letter (a feature that is lost in translation). Chapter 5 has twenty-two verses but is not an acrostic. In all five poems, pain and distress are paired with faith and hope. The suffering of the present seems more real than the possibility of redemption in the future, but God’s love and faithfulness remain.
Authorship
The book of Lamentations does not identify its author. The poems are situated in a context immediately before and after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC. Jeremiah was in Jerusalem during this time of calamity, and he has long been identified as the author. It may have been written with the help of Baruch, Jeremiah’s assistant and scribe. Second Chronicles indicates that Jeremiah also wrote laments at the time of King Josiah’s death (2 Chr 35:25). The author of Lamentations freely pours out his emotions, as does Jeremiah in the book that bears his name, and both books reflect on the future of the nation.
There are a number of other parallels between the books of Jeremiah and Lamentations. Compare the treatment of the following themes: troubled widows (1:1; 5:3; cp. Jer 15:8; 18:21); weeping people (1:2, 16; 2:18; 3:48-49; cp. Jer 4:8; 6:26; 9:1; 13:17; 14:17; 25:34); sin (1:5, 10, 18, 22; 3:42; 4:13-14; 5:7; cp. Jer 2:34; 4:17; 14:20; 30:14-16; 31:29; 51:51); punishment (2:2-22; 3:39; 5:14-16; cp. Jer 6:11, 25; 7:14; 16:2-4; 18:21; 51:30, 34; 52:14); false prophets (2:14; cp. Jer 23:25-29; 29:8-9); bitterness (3:19; cp. Jer 9:15); pits (3:53, 55; cp. Jer 37:16; 38:6-13); and clay pots (4:2; cp. Jer 19:11). Although some Old Testament scholars ascribe Lamentations to a much later author, such parallels support Jeremiah’s authorship.
Meaning and Message
What positive meaning can be gained from staring at fire-blackened stones or from walking among starving children and wailing mothers? How does one sort through the memories of false prophets who promised rescue from the Babylonian army encamped around Jerusalem? How does one make sense of the priests wandering the city searching for food, when those priests had previously conveyed confidence that the sacrifices they offered would provide victory and success? How can one believe in God’s goodness when corpses lie everywhere?
The author of Lamentations did find meaning in the calamity. God’s people had brought it on themselves through their false worship and immoral behavior. God was angry because of this rejection of his sovereignty and violation of their covenant with him. As a result, God had judged them, as he had promised to do (see Deut 28:32-53). God’s punishment was righteous and just (see Lam 1:18); he does not tolerate human rebellion.
But what about the future? Those who truly seek God have hope. In the midst of utter sorrow, those in anguish can plead before God and experience his mercy, forgiveness, and restoration. Misery threatens to overwhelm the soul, but hope brings light. God is eternal, and he is sovereign over the universe. Though doubts and fears continue to assault the human spirit, God remains dependable. God’s anger, which is just, is temporary. His anger ceases when confession and repentance begin, and it becomes possible to sing of God’s great faithfulness (Lam 3:21-26).
Ezek.1.1-48.35
The prophet Ezekiel’s book contains strange visions, images, and messages that seem far removed from contemporary life. Yet its message remains very relevant: God will purify his people and live among them forever. Even during the darkest days, God insisted that he would restore his people. This message offered hope to the exiled people of Judah and provides inspiration to all who put their trust in him.
Setting
The book of Ezekiel was written from Babylonia during the difficult days of Judah’s exile in Babylon (605–538 BC). The Babylonians had captured the Assyrian capital of Nineveh (612 BC), and Babylonian domination was made complete with the defeat of the last resisting Assyrians at the decisive battle of Carchemish (605 BC). In that same year, the Babylonians raided Judah and took hostages from the upper classes back to Babylon, including Daniel and his three friends (Dan 1:1-5).
In 601 BC, King Jehoiakim of Judah rebelled against the Babylonians, and he died during the ensuing siege (598 BC). His son, Jehoiachin, reigned for only a brief period before he surrendered and was taken to Babylon in 597 BC. At that time the Babylonians also took the prophet Ezekiel and other prominent people into exile and plundered many treasures from the Temple in Jerusalem.
While Ezekiel was in Babylon, the Babylonians placed Jehoiachin’s uncle Zedekiah on the throne of Judah. When Zedekiah rebelled against Babylon, the Babylonians ravaged Judah and besieged Jerusalem in January 588 BC. The city was finally breached and destroyed in August 586 BC. The Babylonians forced Zedekiah to watch as they put his sons to death; then he was blinded and taken to Babylon with the other citizens of Judah who had skills useful to their overlords. These exiles remained in Babylon for a generation until the fortunes of the empire changed again (see the book of Ezra).
Ezekiel’s first visions took place in Babylon in 593 BC, when he was thirty years old (Ezek 1:1-2).
Summary
Ezekiel’s visions span the years leading up to and following the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. Before Jerusalem’s fall, Ezekiel delivered the woeful message that judgment would come upon the people of Judah. After that event, Ezekiel conveyed a new vision of hope: Israel would emerge from the ashes of her past. Although the prophet mourned what had been lost, he saw a bright future when the people would repent of the sins that brought their destruction and the Lord would establish the nation in holiness.
Chapters 1–3 tell of Ezekiel’s call and commissioning as a prophet. His opening vision tells of the Lord’s glory, ominously on the move (1:4-28). With images of motion and judgment, the vision depicts the Lord as the divine warrior in his heavenly chariot, coming to judge his people. During Ezekiel’s call (2:1–3:15), the Spirit told him that the stubborn and rebellious people of Judah would not listen to his message. However, the Lord wanted Ezekiel to be equally stubborn in faithfully delivering his message. Like a watchman (3:16-27), he should sound the alarm clearly and distinctly. God would hold the prophet accountable for delivering the message, not for the people’s response.
In chapters 4–24, Ezekiel delivers a litany of doom against Judah and Jerusalem. The prophet performs a series of sign acts depicting the coming siege and destruction of Jerusalem. Chapters 8–11 depict Jerusalem’s sins in four scenes of increasing abomination that clearly illustrate the reason for the coming destruction. God’s glory departs from the sanctuary, and the Temple is completely destroyed. The poems, oracles, and visions throughout this section cumulatively establish the inevitability and justice of Jerusalem’s destruction, culminating with the announcement of Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem and a final message of the certainty of judgment (ch 24).
Ezekiel then turns toward hope, beginning with seven messages (chs 25–32) that indict the surrounding nations for having assisted the Babylonians and for delighting in Jerusalem’s fall. These messages show that the promise God made to Abraham remained intact: “I will . . . curse those who treat you with contempt” (Gen 12:3). God’s judgment would come on all who took pleasure in the downfall of his people and who profited from their demise.
Chapters 33–48 complete the movement from judgment to hope, beginning with the decisive moment when the exiles finally hear the news of Jerusalem’s destruction (33:21). At this point the Lord again commissions the prophet Ezekiel to minister as a watchman, proclaiming judgment on those who refuse to repent and promising life for those who do. Messages of hope promise a new shepherd with a renewed covenant and land, where the people will dwell together in unity (chs 34–37). The dark clouds of war threaten this picture of blessing (chs 38–39), but the Lord demonstrates the certainty of the new state of affairs. The Lord gathers the forces of Gog and his allies, not to judge his peacefully settled people, but to smash their enemies once and for all.
After God defeats Gog and his allies, he can reveal the final Temple and the reoriented land (chs 40–48). With architectural, ritual, and geographic imagery, Ezekiel’s final vision depicts the same message as the rest of the book: God will raise his people to a new level of holiness so that he can once again dwell in their midst. Those who were faithful in the past receive renewed access to God’s presence, while those who were less faithful remain on the margins. A river of life flows out from this new Temple; as it flows, it grows and transforms death into life. God’s final words to his people through Ezekiel do not warn of abandonment and destruction; rather, they promise fellowship and life.
Authorship and Date
In the opening verses of the book, the prophet Ezekiel claims that he is the author (1:3), and there is little reason to doubt his claim. The book shows all the interests expected from a priest such as Ezekiel, and the central event of Jerusalem’s destruction dominates the book’s structure. The prophet most likely wrote the book during the period in which his visions and messages were given (593–571 BC), with the completed composition probably dating shortly after the final message.
Meaning and Message
Before 586 BC, both the exiles in Babylon and the people remaining in Judah were convinced that Jerusalem could not be destroyed. They believed that the presence of the Temple and its prescribed rituals would guarantee the city’s survival. Ezekiel had to tell them that they were completely wrong. Because the Temple and its rituals were corrupt and the hearts and lives of the people were thoroughly pagan, Jerusalem had to be destroyed.
While all the Old Testament prophets condemned sin and idolatry, perhaps none used quite such sweeping terms as Ezekiel. From Israel’s time in Egypt onward, the disobedience of God’s people infected every branch of society and encompassed every form of offense against God. God could not ignore or condone such sin and would surely judge his people soon. Nothing could save God’s city or its people from his judgment.
Following the destruction of Jerusalem, God’s people were in grave danger of disillusionment and despair. They felt spiritually dead, abandoned by God and cut off from his presence. They said, “Our sins are heavy upon us; we are wasting away! How can we survive?” (33:10). Babylonian deities, who seemed to have triumphed over the Lord, surrounded the people. No one had returned home from captivity. Their hopes were dashed, and they believed they had no choice but to settle in the pagan land of Babylon and become part of its culture.
To these disillusioned people, the prophet delivered a message of God’s sovereignty and glory, depicting God as majestic, transcendent, and powerful. The Babylonian gods had certainly not defeated the Lord; rather, God had voluntarily abandoned his land and dwelling place because of his people’s sin. Although he left the defiled city of Jerusalem, this glorious God did not abandon his people. Instead, he went to the remnant of his people in exile (11:16), where Ezekiel himself first saw the Lord’s glory (1:1). God was still controlling all things, even the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar’s attempts to consult his own gods through divination (21:21-23; cp. Dan 2–4). The Lord had decreed the destruction of Jerusalem for its sins; Nebuchadnezzar was simply acting as God’s agent.
Jerusalem’s destruction did not mark the end of the story for God’s people. God had promised to bless Abraham’s descendants, making them into a mighty nation and blessing all nations through them. The oracles against the nations surrounding Judah (Ezek 25–32) demonstrated that God had not forgotten his ancient promise that those who rejoiced at Israel’s downfall would themselves be severely judged. God would not forever abandon his people. One day he would return to be their shepherd (34:11); he would transform the land and the people from death to life. God’s glory would once again return to the Temple, which would never again be defiled. Further, God would gather his scattered people into his presence and replace the old ways of doing things with new laws and higher standards of holiness. When filled with God’s Spirit, the people would no longer defile the land with their sins.
Ezekiel points toward a greater hope fulfilled in Jesus Christ. Through Christ, God’s glory fully dwells in our midst as light in the darkness of our exile (11:16; 43:1-5; John 1:14). The Good Shepherd restores justice for his sheep (Ezek 34:1-24; John 10:11). He fills us with his Spirit and makes us new creatures in him (Ezek 36:26-28; 37:1-14; 2 Cor 5:17). Those who have allied themselves with Christ have even greater access to God’s presence than Ezekiel’s visions anticipated. They are able to approach the throne of grace freely and drink from the life-giving water that flows from the throne (Ezek 47:1-11; Rev 22:1-5). Everything that Ezekiel anticipated—and more—is ours in Christ.
Dan.1.1-12.13
While Daniel was coming of age, Babylon was flourishing. Meanwhile, the people of Israel were being exiled from Judah to Babylonia. Could God’s people hope to enjoy life as the Lord’s chosen nation again? Through Daniel’s experiences as a captive and as a government official, and through special messages, God revealed to Daniel his power and his plan for history, showing that he would rescue his people from exile and even from death.
Setting
In 605 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon (605–562 BC) attacked Jerusalem and took some Israelites as captives back to Babylon, including some of the young men of Judah’s royal family (1:1-4). In this historic event, God began sending his people into exile as he had warned he would do. The Israelites had broken faith with God by breaking his covenant (Deut 28:36, 64; Jer 11:1-17; 25:11-12; 29:10-11). Through the mighty king Nebuchadnezzar, God judged his people Israel (Jer 25:9). During that time, Daniel and his friends began a process of enculturation ordered by Nebuchadnezzar that threatened to absorb them into a pagan way of life while effectively neutralizing their identity as the Lord’s holy people (see Exod 19:5-6).
Meanwhile, the Babylonians continued to devastate Judah and Jerusalem. In 597 BC, more Israelites were taken to Babylon, and in 586 BC, Jerusalem was destroyed. After 586 BC, Judah was no longer a nation; God’s people were totally helpless and hopeless. At this low point in their existence, God’s people became the tail of the nations, not their head (see Deut 28:13, 44). It seemed that they might simply be absorbed into Babylon and disappear from the stage of history.
The promise that Abraham’s descendants would be a blessing to all nations seemed hopelessly in default (Gen 12:1-3). The great Gentile superpowers of the ancient Near East, first Assyria and then Babylon, ruled the world. What would happen to Israel in exile? What would become of God’s promises to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses (Exod 19–20), and David (2 Sam 7:1-29)? Would God act on the basis of his words of hope through his prophets? How would God rescue his people from exile?
Daniel maintained his integrity, honored his people, and glorified his God through the reigns of several Babylonian kings to the end of the Babylonian Exile. As God’s people endured the “death of exile” (Ezek 37), God showed Daniel visions of the future, when a coming King would receive power and reign forever.
In 539 BC, Cyrus of Persia shook the world by invading Babylon, gaining entrance into the capital city, and subduing it and its blasphemous ruler, Belshazzar, just as the prophet Isaiah had predicted he would (Isa 44:26–45:7). Daniel witnessed the decree that the captive peoples could return to their homes (see Ezra 1:2-4). This fulfilled Jeremiah’s prophecy (Jer 25:11-12; 29:10-11) and answered Daniel’s prayer earlier that same year (Dan 9:1-19). After seventy years of servitude, God’s people were being restored.
The Lord gave his holy people encouragement for the future through Daniel by painting the canvas of history with visions and dreams. God spoke to give his people new hope as they faced a threatening future.
Summary
The book of Daniel covers the period from 605 BC to around 535 BC. Chapters 1–6 feature events and stories that demonstrate God’s faithfulness to Daniel and his friends as they remained faithful to God and his law. Three times, the Hebrew captives were faced with royal decrees that went against God’s law (chs 1, 3, 6); all three times, they exhibited wisdom while obeying God, and he saved them from harm. Three times, God spoke through Daniel to interpret revelations he had given to pagan kings (chs 2, 4, 5). Daniel’s words and subsequent events showed that God wields ultimate power and authority on earth.
In chapters 7–12, the focus shifts to God’s sovereignty over the course of history. Chapter 7 uses animal symbolism to tell the same story found in chapter 2: World history will culminate in the establishment of God’s Kingdom, but first there will be fierce opposition to God and his purposes. Chapter 8 highlights the roles of Persia and Greece, culminating in the acts of a wicked ruler who opposes God’s people. Chapter 9 features Daniel’s marvelous prayer that is inspired by Jeremiah’s prophecy of seventy years of servitude (9:1-2). The prayer touched God’s heart and helped to end the Exile. As a result of the prayer, the angel Gabriel is sent to Daniel to reveal the coming seventy sets of seven, an overview of God’s plan to establish his people and deal with their oppressors. In chapters 10–12, the book concludes with a final vision that portrays history from the third year of Cyrus (536 BC), to the time of Greece and Rome, and on to the time of the resurrection. Daniel was faithful to his calling, and God promises that he will be raised in the end (12:13).
Authorship and Date
Scholars have endlessly debated the date at which the book of Daniel was put into its final form. Most conservative scholars argue that Daniel wrote the book in the late 500s BC. The book claims to be predictive prophecy (2:29-31; 4:24; 7:1–12:13), and the author places Daniel in the 500s (2:1; 5:1; 10:1). The book displays excellent knowledge of Babylonian history, although some historical issues do arise.
Other scholars argue for dating the book around 164 BC, primarily because Daniel describes events down to about that time—the predictions in 11:1-35 are thought to be much too detailed about events that occurred between 190 and 164 BC to have been given 300 years beforehand.
There are problems with ruling out an early date for the book, however. Above all, the book in its present form is clearly attributed to Daniel alone; a late date assumes that Daniel could not have been the author. If Daniel himself did not write the predictive prophecies, then the book’s claims lack the integrity demanded of one of God’s inspired prophets and would have faced difficulty being accepted into the Hebrew canon. One of the major claims of Daniel is that God can predict the future (2:27-29; 10:21). Without denying that the precision of detail is remarkable, these predictions should not be assumed to be impossible: Who is to say with what detail God may reveal the future to his prophets?
Daniel’s visions also have characteristics of apocalyptic literature. Apocalyptic literature was especially popular among Jewish writings of the intertestamental period (after 400 BC), so it has been said that the book could not have been written prior to that time. However, recent studies have argued that apocalyptic thinking is present in biblical books from the exilic period. Therefore it is possible to think of Daniel as serving as a model for the later apocalypses.
In summary, it is not implausible to view the book of Daniel as having been written in the 500s BC by Daniel himself. The arguments for later authorship are not without problems, and the traditional viewpoint is consistent with the book’s character as inspired predictive prophecy.
Daniel as Literature
Daniel contains history, but it contains much more. It teaches the theological lessons of history by going behind earthly events to demonstrate their true meaning and significance. It shows God’s hand and plan in history by the way it reports events.
Daniel as Wisdom Literature. Daniel is a book of wisdom intended to make God’s people wise in God’s ways. The wise person is purified through suffering, seeks the path of righteousness, and leads others into that way (11:33-35; 12:3). The wise person knows that God Most High is the God of gods, that he holds the future in his hands, and that he can rescue his people from any danger (3:16-18; 6:21-22; 12:1-3).
Daniel as Apocalyptic Literature. Certain parts of Daniel belong to a genre called apocalyptic literature (apocalyptic comes from the Greek word apokalupsis, meaning “revelation”). This genre pulls back the curtain of earthly history and reveals the activity of God, angels, and other spiritual powers behind the scenes. These activities affect historical events on the earth. Apocalyptic literature reveals reality by using rich symbolic language such that statues, animals, or horns can represent such things as kings, kingdoms, and persons.
It is important to interpret apocalyptic literature according to what its imagery intends. What is the reality and truth behind the imagery? The literary context and the historical background of a passage must be examined in order to properly interpret its symbolism. Sometimes the insights needed to interpret the imagery are found within the text (7:1-14, 16-17, 23-25). In other cases, a study of the social, political, military, or cultural milieu will yield helpful insights. For instance, studying the history of Babylon can be helpful in understanding why a certain image for Babylon (a golden head or a lion) is fitting. By going behind earthly events to demonstrate their true meaning, the book of Daniel teaches a number of theological lessons.
The Text of Daniel
The ancient Greek version of Daniel and the Latin Vulgate include three passages not found in the Hebrew manuscripts. These passages are included in Roman Catholic and Orthodox editions of the Bible, but not in Protestant editions.
Meaning and Message
Daniel’s major theme is that God is sovereign: He will accomplish his purposes for humanity and all of creation. History is on an inexorable march toward the Kingdom of God, in which God’s sovereignty will be fully realized. God judges and rescues his people, controls history as he pleases on a universal scale, and raises up or brings down pagan kingdoms and kings. He decided when to conclude the Exile (9:18-19), and he defeats and controls the powers of evil (4:30, 32; 7:8, 20-21; 10:13; 11:28, 30-32). Heavenly powers bow to him (3:28; 4:23, 35; 5:5; 6:21; 8:16; 9:21; 10:5, 13; 12:1), and he has the power to raise the dead (12:1-3). His wisdom controls all things (3:18; 11:35). He chooses and approves of those who are beloved and highly esteemed in his eyes (9:23; 10:11, 19). God establishes his Kingdom over all the earth forever, and his people will rule over it with their King, the Son of Man (7:13, 22; see Ps 110:1; Matt 24:27-44; 25:31; 26:2, 64; Mark 14:62; Rev 1:7).
Hos.1.1-14.9
Hosea experienced betrayal and anguish because of his wife’s adultery. Hosea’s experiences reflect God’s agony over his people’s sins. God’s justice requires judgment, but in his love, God promises to redeem his chosen people. Hosea opens a window for us into the very heart of God.
Setting
Few eras in ancient Israel were more turbulent than the mid-700s BC. Hosea began his ministry in the northern kingdom toward the end of the long and stable reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 BC). Despite being an evil king (2 Kgs 14:23-24), Jeroboam was a strong and capable leader who expanded the boundaries of Israel to an extent not seen since the glorious days of David and Solomon (2 Kgs 14:25-28). Jeroboam’s successes brought great wealth to some Israelites, but left many others poor and destitute.
Jeroboam II died early in Hosea’s ministry. During the following three decades, six different kings sat on Israel’s throne. Only one died a natural death; four were assassinated. In the midst of this political turmoil, hostile foreign powers were threatening to destroy the nation.
The northern kingdom, which had worshiped pagan gods from its inception, now turned even more forcefully to these foreign deities. The Israelites grasped at any straw that might save them from destruction, but they refused to turn to the Lord. Then in 722 BC, the relentless Assyrian empire destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel.
Hosea proclaimed God’s coming judgment to this frantic nation in its final days. But he also offered hope, imploring the Israelites to return to the Lord, who alone could restore them.
Summary
Chapters 1–3 describe the prophet’s unhappy marriage to an unfaithful wife. The purpose of this section is not to present a biography but to illuminate God’s painful relationship with Israel, his chosen people. Just as Hosea’s wife, Gomer, was unfaithful, Israel acted like a prostitute by worshiping Canaanite gods. Hosea proclaimed God’s judgment, but he also announced God’s desire to reclaim his wayward bride and restore her relationship with him.
Chapters 4–14 contain a diverse collection of Hosea’s prophecies, presented in roughly chronological order from early in his ministry until just before the destruction of Israel in 722 BC. In these chapters, the prophet presents God’s charges against the people of Israel and especially against their leaders. The consequences for their sin would be severe—the nation would be destroyed. However, God would not give up his chosen people. The book concludes with a divine promise of future restoration.
Authorship and Date
We know nothing about the prophet Hosea apart from this book. We learn his father’s name (1:1), that he was married to a woman named Gomer, and that he had children with her.
Hosea prophesied to the northern kingdom of Israel from around 760 BC until just before the fall of Israel in 722 BC (see 1:1). Hosea would have memorized his oral prophecies, and eventually he or his followers would have written them down and gathered them into a single anthology. This work might have been done in the southern kingdom of Judah sometime after the fall of Israel in 722 BC.
Literary Characteristics
Hosea was well-educated in Israel’s literature, history, and faith. His prophecies rely on literary and rhetorical techniques—such as figurative language, proverbs, and folk sayings—that made God’s message more vivid and compelling to the Israelites.
Meaning and Message
God’s covenant with Israel stands at the center of Hosea’s prophecy. When God entered into covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai, he offered the Israelites the incredible opportunity of living in intimate relationship with the Creator and sustainer of the universe. The covenant promised spiritual and material blessings to his people, while obligating them to live rightly before him. The Lord had faithfully kept his covenant with the Israelites and they had enjoyed his blessings, but they had chosen to rebel against him and disregard his plan and purpose.
Marriage is a powerful and memorable symbol of the covenant relationship between the Lord and his people. As a loving husband, the Lord provided Israel with land, food, drink, clothing, and security. Yet like an adulterous spouse, Israel sought fulfillment through the idolatrous worship of the Canaanite gods. These deities became Israel’s lovers, and she attributed all of God’s blessings to them. The personal life of the prophet Hosea with his wife, Gomer, played out in miniature this same drama of a wife’s unfaithfulness and a husband’s anguish over his wayward bride.
Israel rejected her covenant with the Lord. In response, Hosea proclaimed God’s judgment. Yet even as the covenant was the foundation for divine judgment, it was also the basis for God’s mercy. God did not judge Israel simply to punish her; his desire was to redeem her. Divine judgment was intended to turn Israel back to her true husband, so that in his mercy, he might restore her and reestablish his covenant with her.
Hosea shows that God’s mercy is extended to Israel through judgment, not instead of judgment. God has done the same thing for us: Through the judgment at the cross of Christ, God extends an invitation of mercy to all.
Joel.1.1-3.21
When disaster strikes, we usually respond in one of two ways. We either turn to God and enter a renewed relationship with him shaped by a fuller understanding of his nature and character, or we turn away from God and blame him or others for our troubles. Some even deny God’s existence. The people of ancient Israel experienced disaster and were faced with this same decision. Would they turn away from God in their time of trouble or turn to him and seek his blessings?
Setting
Joel prophesied to the people of Judah and Jerusalem in the midst of a catastrophe that threatened their very existence. A locust plague of unprecedented proportions had struck the land. Millions of voracious insects arrived in wave after wave to consume every green plant—vegetable gardens, grain crops, grapevines, fruit trees, and even the grass upon which their sheep and goats grazed. In the face of such a disaster, all human and animal life was at risk. In the ancient world, there were no insecticides to kill the locusts, no stocks of nonperishable food for emergencies, and no relief agencies to bring in food supplies. Such a plague brought with it the specter of death for thousands upon thousands, especially the very young and the very old.
During such a perilous time, it was only natural that the people of Judah and Jerusalem would ask hard questions about the justice and mercy of God. Is God truly in charge of heaven and earth? Is he good? They also looked inward at their own sin and moral responsibility for the plague. Has God sent the locust plague to punish us for our failure to live in right relationship with him? Will God be merciful to us? Do we have a future? In response to such questions, the prophet Joel delivered the word of the Lord to his people.
Summary
The book of Joel consists of two nearly equal parts. In the first section (1:1–2:17), the prophet describes the devastating locust plague that afflicted Judah and Jerusalem. The plague was so severe that it laid waste to the entire land, destroying grains, vines, and trees. The effects of the plague were further compounded by a drought that left the land parched and burned. As a result, both humans and animals groaned with hunger, and the people had nothing left to bring to the Temple as an offering to the Lord. Therefore, in 2:12-17, Joel calls on the people to repent and throw themselves on the mercy of their compassionate God. (Other commentators have understood this passage as an apocalyptic description of the coming day of the Lord, using the language of a locust plague to describe an invading human army.)
In the second part of the book (2:18–3:21), the Lord promises to take pity on his people and restore their land following the locust plague. In 2:18-27, Joel describes how God will restore their material lives in the immediate future, replenishing their fields, orchards, vineyards, and flocks. In 2:28–3:21, Joel turns his attention to the more distant future when God will restore their spiritual lives. At that time, God will pour out his Spirit on all people who respond to him in faith. God will also render judgment on the peoples and nations that refuse to acknowledge his lordship.
Date of Writing
We do not know when the prophet Joel lived and prophesied. Joel does not list the kings under whom he ministered (cp., e.g., Amos 1:1; Mic 1:1), nor does he provide any other clear historical information. For this reason, scholars have proposed many different dates for Joel.
In the Hebrew and English Bibles, Joel is placed between Hosea and Amos, who prophesied during the 700s BC. This has led some to propose that Joel was an early prophet who may have lived even before Amos and Hosea. Because the book makes no mention of a king and regards the priesthood favorably, these interpreters believe that Joel prophesied while Joash (835–796 BC) was still a child, when the kingdom was under the oversight of Jehoiada the priest (see Joel 2:17; see also 2 Kgs 12:1-21).
On the other hand, several considerations seem to point to a much later date for Joel. Joel never refers to the northern kingdom of Israel or to its capital city, Samaria, suggesting that the prophet lived after their destruction in 722 BC. Likewise, Joel never mentions Assyria or Babylon, Israel’s great enemies from the 700s to 500s BC, leading many to argue that these two empires were already long past for Joel. Because the monarchy ended with the Exile in 586 BC, many scholars locate Joel in the postexilic period, after the Jewish people began returning to their own land in 538 BC.
Finally, there are numerous passages in which Joel could be seen as drawing upon or directly quoting the words and ideas of prophets such as Amos, Zephaniah, Obadiah, and Ezekiel. Although it is possible that Joel ministered before these prophets and that they were borrowing from him, it is also possible that Joel adapted the earlier prophetic words to speak God’s word to people who faced an entirely new situation.
These observations do not prove that Joel lived and prophesied after the Exile, but they are convincing enough that the majority of biblical scholars accept a postexilic date. Fortunately, knowing the exact time in history that Joel prophesied is less important in his case than it is for other prophets. Joel’s message concerns issues that are relevant to every age.
Meaning and Message
Throughout the book of Joel, we clearly see God’s sovereignty over all creation. He is Lord of both the natural world and human civilization. The locust plague was not merely a natural event; the army of insects came at God’s command (2:11). The Lord controls rain and drought, fertility and famine, blessing and destruction. All peoples, both Israelites and non-Israelites, are subject to his sovereign judgment, but divine sovereignty does not negate human responsibility.
Because human sin has so negatively affected the natural world, Joel calls the people of Judah and Jerusalem to repentance. Joel can offer the Israelites the opportunity to repent because he knows that God is merciful and compassionate. It is God’s nature to forgive those who repent rather than to judge them, to restore rather than to destroy. Quoting an ancient text (Exod 34:6-7), Joel extends God’s gracious invitation to the Israelites: “Return to the Lord your God, for he is merciful and compassionate, slow to get angry and filled with unfailing love” (Joel 2:13).
For Joel, the proper way to express repentance was through the official Temple worship presided over by the priests. This may seem surprising because several other prophets denounce the official worship because of widespread corruption among the priests and leaders (see Isa 1:10-18; Amos 5:21-24), but Joel recognized the value in worship when it is performed with a sincere heart that is fully open to God (an attitude characteristic of postexilic prophets—see Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi). In worship, invisible eternal realities are represented by physical objects and actions. However, the prophet reminds the Israelites that religion is much more than outward display; true worship is founded on inward transformation (Joel 2:13). The solution to corrupt worship is not to abandon worship, but to worship God in spirit and in truth (see John 4:23-24).
To a people who faced disaster, Joel brought the message that their God was fully in control of the future. He assured them that on the day of the Lord, God would intervene in the world to judge the wicked and to establish peace and justice (Joel 1:15; 2:1). Then he will pour out his Spirit on people of every class, gender, and age, making it possible for his people to live in accord with his law. The wrongs that all too often dominate our fallen world will only be righted when God fully and finally comes into his creation (Joel 2:28–3:21; see Matt 16:27; Acts 2:16-40; Col 2:13-22; Rev 21–22).
Amos.1.1-9.15
“Prepare to meet your God,” Amos proclaimed to those who worshiped idols (4:12). Let there be “a mighty flood of justice,” Amos admonished the rich who oppressed the poor (5:24). What brought this shepherd from Tekoa to Bethel to pronounce such powerful judgments? Amos did not make his living as a professional prophet (7:14); the “roar” of God (1:2; 3:8) had moved him to make the journey. His message calls for righteousness—right worship that yields right social ethics. God’s people still need the prophet’s help to make that connection.
Setting
In 931 BC, the kingdom of Israel split into two kingdoms: the northern kingdom (Israel) and the southern kingdom (Judah). The first king of the north, Jeroboam I, did not want his subjects to go to Jerusalem (in the south) to worship, so he established shrines at Dan and Bethel. Drawing on an earlier precedent (Exod 32), Jeroboam used images of young bulls to represent the Lord (1 Kgs 12:25-33). This move typified the northern kingdom’s rejection of God’s revelation in defining both their worship and their ethics. Paganized Israel became an abuser of the powerless.
The calf shrines that Jeroboam I established at Dan and Bethel (1 Kgs 12:29), together with the presence of the baals (local representations of the Canaanite storm-god), reduced the worship of Yahweh (the Lord) in the northern kingdom to a pagan religion like that of Israel’s neighbors. Often, the worship of Yahweh did continue, but it did so alongside the worship of local deities. The Israelites thought they would receive some desired benefit (such as rain or fertility) from worshiping these deities. When Elijah challenged the priests of Baal on Mount Carmel, it was because the people wanted to worship both Yahweh and Baal. However, Elijah left them without that alternative (1 Kgs 18:21, 24). The message of Amos was similar.
When Amos arrived in Israel (shortly before 753 BC), the rich were getting richer and the poor were getting poorer. Around 801 BC, the Assyrians had captured Damascus but were forced to withdraw due to problems elsewhere. Egypt was also in decline during this time. In the resulting power vacuum, both Israel and Judah flourished, recovering some of the territory they had lost to Aram (2 Kgs 14:23-29; 15:1-7; 2 Chr 26:1-23). The two kingdoms increased in prosperity, but the greater prosperity merely increased the power of those who already had it. Those who had no power became even more oppressed.
In response to this situation, Amos traveled from Tekoa (in Judah) to the northern shrine at Bethel, where he called Israel to account for its apostasy and inhumanity.
Summary
Amos confronted Israel with the message that lip service is not enough in worship of the Lord. After a brief introduction (Amos 1:1-2), the first section of Amos (1:3–2:16) is a series of eight indictments. The prophet directs the first seven charges against surrounding nations, with the eighth against Israel itself. By first charging Israel’s enemies with war crimes and theological aberrations, Amos wins the sympathy and agreement of his hearers.
But then he says, “The people of Israel, too, have sinned.” What follows (3:1–5:17) is framed by three prophetic messages. The first (3:1-2) accuses Israel of abusing its privileged status as God’s chosen people. The second (4:1-3) is an indictment of Israel’s party crowd. The third (5:1-2) is a funeral song for the predicted death of the nation. Between the prophetic messages Amos includes rhetorical questions (3:3-6), metaphors from his life as a shepherd (3:8, 12), sarcastic irony (4:4-5), historical recitation (4:6-11), hymn fragments (4:13; 5:8-9), puns (5:5), pleas for repentance, and predictions of the doom that awaits the unrepentant.
The third section of Amos (5:18–6:14) contains two prophetic messages of woe: The first is a warning to those who proclaim the day of the Lord as a time when God will reestablish Israel as a leading nation (5:18-27); the second admonishes those who trust in their wealth, houses, or fortifications to save them (6:1-14).
The fourth section (7:1–9:10) contains five prophetic oracles based on visions. Amos first wins over his hearers with visions of two judgments that would be averted (7:1-6), but then drives home his message with two judgments that would not be turned aside (7:7-9; 8:1-3). These visions are interrupted by a brief biographical vignette (7:10-17). The final vision is of the complete destruction of Israel and its religious system (9:1-10).
Finally, in 9:11-15, Amos promises better days to come, a time of healing and restoration when Jerusalem would be rebuilt, the dynasty of David would be reestablished in the land, and people would live in the peace of God’s Kingdom.
Date and Location
Amos’s ministry was brief, perhaps limited to a single year. Its setting was the royal shrine at Bethel in the northern kingdom (7:13), a short time before the death of Jeroboam II in 753 BC (1:1).
Recipients
Amos directed his message to all the Israelite people, but especially to the rich, powerful, and self-indulgent (see especially 5:18–6:8). While Amos clearly considered Israel’s split from Judah and the Jerusalem sanctuary as the primary cause of its moral and spiritual decline, he was aware that Judah was also slipping away from a pure worship of the Lord (2:4-5). Thus, the book includes condemnation of those “who lounge in luxury in Jerusalem,” as well as indictment of the smugly secure in Samaria (see 6:1).
The Prophet Amos
All that is known about the life of Amos comes from the book bearing his name. According to the superscription, he was a shepherd (noqed) from Tekoa (modern Teku’a), a small, fortified town about five miles south of Bethlehem in Judah.
Earlier scholars often characterized the prophet Amos as a poor sheepherder who represented the marginalized classes in Judah and who was unjustly oppressed by wealthy landowners. More recent studies have taken a different direction, however. The Hebrew word commonly used for a shepherd is ro‘eh (as in Ps 23:1), not noqed. In its only occurrence as a noun outside the book of Amos, the word describes Mesha, king of Moab, as one who regularly delivered a substantial tribute of wool and sheep to Israel (2 Kgs 3:4). The term noqed therefore probably designates someone who owned sheep rather than a shepherd who worked for someone else. A second insight comes from 7:14. Here Amos uses a different word for shepherd (boqer; literally herder), perhaps indicating that he owned cattle, a sign of considerable wealth. Amos further describes himself as one who tends sycamore-fig trees (7:14), the fruit of which was used for animal fodder. The word that is used (boles) does not occur elsewhere, but in the context of a boqer, it may mean someone who raised sycamore-figs, rather than a worker who tended the orchards of others.
The emerging picture, then, is not one of a simple herder who tended the sheep and trees of others, but of an owner and manager of livestock and trees. This newer perspective on Amos harmonizes well with the contents of his prophecy. The book is written in excellent Judean Hebrew and shows a keen awareness of Israel’s heritage as well as its contemporary political and economic circumstances.
Meaning and Message
Moses had depicted God as ethical and as caring deeply for the powerless (see, e.g., Deut 24:10-22). But Israel’s apostasy and moral corruption permitted oppression of the poor and powerless. Material prosperity erroneously came to be seen as a sign of God’s favor, and the people prized appearances over substance. This violated God’s requirements for a holy people.
Proper worship of the true God leads to ethical behavior toward others. But corrupt worship and theology will corrupt human relationships. Theology yields morality, right worship yields good works, and faith yields practical change. Morality cannot be defined simply as personal purity or integrity; it also includes social obligations born of the conviction that all human life is God’s creation and bears his image (Gen 1:26-27). Service to God is expressed through service to his creatures.
Because this cry for humane treatment of the downtrodden applies to all people in every generation, Amos has inspired some great social reformers. For example, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. used these denunciations and exhortations in his own preaching as a stimulus for the American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.
Obad.1.1-21
“Am I my brother’s keeper?” This ancient question, posed by Cain when the Lord inquired about his missing brother Abel, has become a metaphor for sidestepping responsibility. But Cain was in fact guilty of murdering his brother. Even to stand aloof when innocent people are violated is to share in the crime. Edom, a neighbor and relative of Judah, watched in delight and participated as Babylon destroyed Jerusalem. Now God would hold Edom accountable. God’s judgment always follows such injustice.
Setting
The people of Edom were descended from Jacob’s brother, Esau (see Gen 25:30). The Edomites mostly inhabited the highlands east of the Arabah and south of the Dead Sea. Edom existed throughout most of Israel’s monarchy (around 1050–586 BC) and was often a vassal to the southern kingdom of Judah (2 Sam 8:14; 1 Kgs 11:14-16; 2 Kgs 8:20-22; cp. 2 Kgs 3:9-14). Edom was probably infiltrated and supplanted by Arab kingdoms around 600–400 BC. In postexilic and New Testament times, Edom resurfaced in southern Judah under the Greek name Idumea, whose most infamous citizen was Herod the Great, the self-styled “King of the Jews.”
As a nation, Edom replayed Esau’s original animosity toward Jacob. For example, Edom opposed Israel’s exodus from Egypt (Num 20:14-21; 21:4). Much later, when the kingdom of Judah was attacked and taken into exile by the Babylonians, Edom not only rejoiced in the event but also sided with the Babylonians against Israel, seeking to enrich themselves. This infidelity toward their “brother” Israel prompted Obadiah’s prophecy.
Summary
Obadiah is built around two related themes: the destruction of Edom, and the vindication and restoration of Judah.
In Obadiah’s introduction (1:1-9), a messenger is sent to call the nations to battle against Edom, and Edom’s judgment is announced. The overthrow of Edom would completely destroy the pride of this nation that was secure in its physical location and its intellectual achievements.
The second section (1:10-14) gives the reasons for Edom’s humiliation in a series of taunts. The errant nation had a duty to its brother Jacob that it not only ignored but actively repudiated.
In the third and final section (1:15-21), Obadiah envisions a coming day of the Lord that will culminate in a universal Kingdom belonging to God. Those who do evil will suffer terrible consequences (1:15-16), and those who have suffered unjustly will be restored (1:17-21). The people of Jerusalem will repossess the land inherited from their forefathers and will spill over their borders in every direction. Their nemesis, Edom, will be subjugated as an example of what happens to those who oppose the Lord’s rule, and the whole world will recognize the Lord as King.
Authorship and Date
Obadiah’s name means “servant of the Lord.” He is known only from his prophecy and from clues that the text provides as to his time and place. Several individuals in Old Testament Israel were named Obadiah, including King Ahab’s palace supervisor at an earlier time (1 Kgs 18:3-16).
Obadiah’s prophecy was motivated by the invasion of the kingdom of Judah. In 586 BC, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar terminated Judah’s independence and exiled its last king, Zedekiah (2 Kgs 25:1-30). Outside of the book of Obadiah, there is little reference to Edom’s specific response to this event (see also Isa 34:5-10). Obadiah probably wrote his prophecy shortly after Jerusalem was destroyed in 586 BC.
Literary Features
Obadiah’s message about Edom echoes that of other prophets, and parts of it closely follow Jeremiah 49:9, 14-16. It should probably be read in conjunction with other prophecies regarding Edom’s future and may even function as an expansion of such passages as Joel 3:19 and Amos 9:12.
Meaning and Message
On first reading, it is easy to regard Obadiah’s prophecy as little more than a prophetic tirade in which the Lord’s wrath is directed toward Israel’s enemies. The Lord’s wrath is real, and evil does not go unpunished, but the book has far more to say than this.
Nations, like individuals, should attend carefully to what they plant, because the time of harvest will quickly come. God is offended by wrongdoing, and he brings justice for the oppressed. What Edom did to Judah, whether actively or passively, would rebound on them according to the ancient law of retribution (lex talionis): “As you have done . . . so it will be done to you” (1:15).
The day of the Lord will break in, bringing full justice to the oppressed, punishment to the oppressors, and the onset of a universal kingdom in which the Lord rules over all nations. On a local and historical level, this meant that Israel would be restored to her land and given sovereignty over the lands of Edom. On a universal level, Edom’s punishment was only part of a larger scenario of judgment. Not just Edom, but “all . . . nations” (1:16) will drink the cup of the Lord’s wrath. When the Lord returns as King to a restored Jerusalem, Mount Zion will be at the very center of the new order.
This picture of God dominates Obadiah’s theology and forces modern readers to face a decision. Whom will we serve—a god who is indifferent to evil, or the God of justice that we find in Obadiah? Only a God who judges evil can reassure us that evil will not ultimately triumph. Obadiah looks forward to that new day when “the Lord himself will be king” (1:21). This hope of Israel became the hope of the whole world when Christ announced, “The Kingdom of God is near” (Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9-12; 21:31-33).
Jon.1.1-4.11
The book of Jonah is well known for the amazing events it recounts, but the book’s main purpose is to teach us about God. Through Jonah’s experience, God, the all-powerful Creator, reveals that though he is a God who will pour out his wrath on the wicked, he is also one who eagerly pours out his mercy on those who repent—including those we would too quickly deem to be beyond mercy.
Setting
Jonah was a prophet in the northern kingdom of Israel during the politically prosperous but spiritually dark reign of Jeroboam II (793–753 BC). Despite Jeroboam’s spiritual failures (see 2 Kgs 14:23-24), his territory continued to expand, as Jonah predicted (2 Kgs 14:25), approximately growing back to what it had been in the glory days of David and Solomon (see 1 Kgs 8:65). Nationalism was running high during the time of Jonah.
At that time, Nineveh was a key city in the Assyrian Empire. Assyria’s power had swelled in previous decades. Shalmaneser III of Assyria (858–824 BC) had extended the influence of the empire well into Palestine. Assyrian annals from that period record Shalmaneser confronting the Israelite king Ahab (1 Kgs 17:1–22:53), among others, at the famous battle of Qarqar (853 BC). But during the reigns of Jehoash (798–782 BC) and Jeroboam II (793–753 BC) in Israel, Assyria’s dominance in the region waned because of failed leadership and continued resistance on the frontiers. Jonah preached in Nineveh when the Assyrian Empire was at this low point, probably around 755 BC.
Some years following Jonah’s visit to Nineveh, Assyria began reasserting itself throughout the Near East during the reign of Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BC). In 722 BC, a few decades after Jonah, Assyria sacked Samaria and brought the northern kingdom of Israel to an end. A century later, the prophet Nahum of Judah announced the imminent destruction of Nineveh and the Assyrian Empire, a consequence of its pervasive wickedness. Nineveh was destroyed by the Babylonians in 612 BC. Evidently, the repentance brought about through Jonah’s preaching took no lasting root.
Summary
The book of Jonah falls naturally into two parts. Chapters 1–2 recount Jonah’s initial rejection of the Lord’s commission to warn Nineveh of the judgment it had incurred because of its wickedness. Instead of heading for Nineveh, Jonah set out by ship in the opposite direction (1:3). But the Lord sent a raging storm to chasten the prophet. After a frantic attempt by the pagan sailors to appease whatever god had been offended, Jonah was “discovered” and was reluctantly cast overboard. God then demonstrated his power by calming the storm, and in a twist of irony, the pagan sailors worshiped God while his prophet presumably plunged to a shameful death. But God had plans to save Jonah. Jonah was swallowed by a “great fish,” within which he apparently repented (ch 2). After three days and nights, the fish spit Jonah out onto dry land.
In chapters 3–4, God reasserted his commission of the prophet to preach in Nineveh, and this time, Jonah obeyed. Nineveh repented en masse upon hearing Jonah’s warnings (ch 3), and God refrained from executing the judgment that Jonah had warned was coming (3:10). In another bit of irony, Jonah was unable to accept God’s outpouring of mercy toward Israel’s enemies. Jonah moved from anger to despair (ch 4). God once more deployed his power over nature to chasten Jonah, this time through the rapid growth and demise of a plant that shaded the pouting prophet from the sun. The book ends abruptly, leaving Jonah and the reader pondering God’s final question: Shouldn’t God (and his people) “feel sorry for such a great city” and desire sinners to receive mercy rather than wrath?
Authorship
The book of Jonah does not identify its author; the title derives from the name of the main character. Jonah or an associate of his may have written the book.
Genre
Unlike other prophetic books, Jonah is almost entirely narrative rather than a collection of prophetic messages. But is it historical narrative? Many have insisted that the book is fictional because it describes miraculous events, and diverse attempts have been made to classify the book according to some non-historical literary genre, such as parable or didactic story. Although the author of Jonah did utilize certain literary devices to make his point (the use of poetry, irony, and language common to parables), the book presents itself as a historical account (see 1:1), and it is best understood as a historical narrative with a theological message.
Meaning and Message
Jonah is unique among the prophetic books. It narrates God’s sending of a prophet to Assyria, an enemy of Israel, and the widespread repentance that resulted. The lesson Jonah learned was one that the entire nation of Israel needed: “My salvation comes from the Lord alone” (2:9, literally salvation belongs to the Lord). Salvation is the Lord’s to give to whomever he pleases, and those who have received God’s mercy must not try to restrict the flow of God’s mercy to others, even their enemies (see ch 4).
Salvation—whether from the threat of physical harm or from judgment—is thus directly related to God’s sovereignty. The sailors were saved after God calmed the storm. Jonah was saved from drowning when God sent the fish to swallow him. There is no domain, even in the depths of the ocean, from which God cannot deliver and protect human life. Likewise, there is no nation that God cannot judge (3:4, 9) or save from judgment (3:10; see Jer 18:7-10).
The book of Jonah affirms that, long before Christ came, God was eager to bring salvation beyond the borders of Israel. Israel was his covenant people, but from the beginning his desire was to bless the nations through Israel (see Gen 12:3). God’s heart for the nations is that they turn from idols to know him, the God of heaven who created the world (Jon 1:9; see 2 Pet 3:9).
Mic.1.1-7.20
God’s judgment was coming against false prophets, against Israel’s wayward leaders, and against the rich who oppressed the poor. God’s indictment against his people resulted in their ruin, but after ruin would come restoration. Through Micah, God’s Spirit provided a strong word of hope for Israel’s future. The Lord promised to rescue the remnant of Israel—they would return to their land as God’s renewed people. God promised to subdue their enemies and send his ruler from Bethlehem. Micah exclaims simply but powerfully that there is no God like the Lord.
Setting
Micah delivered his prophecies during the reigns of the southern kings Jotham (750–732 BC), Ahaz (743–715 BC), and Hezekiah (728–686 BC), all of whom had relatively long reigns. At that time, both Israel and Judah were characterized by moral and religious corruption, social oppression, political intrigue, economic injustice, personal vice, deception, and treachery.
Jotham was a moderately good king, but he did not remove the high places where illicit worship of idols competed with proper worship of God at the Temple in Jerusalem. Since the Lord was not entirely pleased with Jotham’s reign, he raised up King Rezin of Aram (whose capital was Damascus) and King Pekah of Israel to oppress Judah (2 Kgs 15:32-38).
Ahaz, Jotham’s son, followed the evil ways of the northern kings of Israel. He engaged in forbidden practices, including child sacrifice, pagan incense burning, and fertility worship (2 Kgs 16:1-4). When the Edomites and Philistines moved into the areas of southern Palestine conquered by Rezin and Pekah (2 Kgs 16:5-6; 2 Chr 28:18), Ahaz made an alliance with the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BC) by paying gold from the Temple and the royal treasuries as tribute money to the Assyrians (2 Kgs 16:7-9). Ahaz corrupted Judah’s worship by bringing pagan altars into Jerusalem (2 Kgs 16:10-13), and he inhibited worship of the Lord (2 Kgs 16:14-20).
In contrast to his father Ahaz, Hezekiah was a righteous king. He witnessed the fall of Samaria (722 BC) to the Assyrians under Shalmaneser V (726–722 BC) and Sargon II (721–705 BC). During his reign, in 701 BC, God delivered Jerusalem from destruction at the hands of King Sennacherib of Assyria (704–681 BC), but Sennacherib still devastated some forty-six cities in Israel and Judah (2 Kgs 18:1–19:37). God also healed Hezekiah from a serious disease. But then Hezekiah unwisely received envoys from the Babylonian king Merodach-baladan, who sought an alliance with Hezekiah against Assyria (2 Kgs 20:12-21).
During the early years of this period, before the destruction of Samaria, the northern kings of Israel were Pekah (752–732 BC) and Hoshea (732–722 BC). Under both kings, Israel strayed further in the ways of Jereboam I, who had caused Israel to turn from God (2 Kgs 15:28). During Pekah’s reign, parts of northern Israel were taken into captivity (2 Kgs 15:29). Pekah was assassinated by Hoshea, who reigned until the fall of Samaria in 722 BC (2 Kgs 15:30-31; 17:6).
As Micah had warned, the northern kingdom of Israel was destroyed and its people were taken into exile. Hoshea had revolted against Assyria and had appealed to Egypt for help, but when Shalmaneser V heard of Hoshea’s treachery, he besieged Samaria, captured it, and destroyed it in 722 BC after a three-year siege. Hoshea was imprisoned, the Israelites were dispersed among Assyrian provinces and vassal kingdoms (2 Kgs 17:5-6), and people from various nations were brought into the devastated land of Israel to live (2 Kgs 17:24-41). Israel’s false worship led to its destruction and rejection by the Lord.
Summary
Following the superscription (1:1), each of three sections begins by calling Israel to “listen” (1:2–2:13; 3:1–5:15; 6:1–7:6). Judgment poured from the Lord through Micah’s prophecies against Samaria, Jerusalem, the wealthy, the corrupt, the false prophets, the oppressive leaders, and other nations. The people of Israel failed to follow God’s ways and did not respond to the messages he had given them. The Lord’s indictment was ironclad: Israel would be ruined and go into exile.
Micah’s message of judgment is interspersed with words of hope, however (see 2:12-13; 4:1-8, 13; 5:2-15; 7:7-20). In the end, judgment would be replaced by the Lord’s grace, unfailing love, faithfulness, forgiveness, pardon, and compassion. Israel would be restored and renewed, and God would fulfill his promises to Abraham and Jacob.
Authorship and Date
Micah was a native of Moresheth, a town about twenty-one miles (thirty-five kilometers) southwest of Jerusalem. Passages such as 4:6-8 and 7:8-20 suggest to some that a later editor completed the present form of the book in the early postexilic era (538–458 BC). This conclusion is not necessary, however. The prophet Micah is not the only preexilic prophet to prophesy a return (see Isa 52:4-12; Hos 11:10-11; Amos 9:11-15).
Micah used figurative language to describe events, which makes it hard to determine the exact circumstances taking place when he prophesied and wrote. Some of Micah’s prophecies were probably given before the destruction of Samaria in 722 BC (see Mic 1:1, 6; 6:16). The Assyrian march into Israel and Judah in 701 BC is reflected in 1:10-15. Micah’s prediction concerning the fall of Jerusalem (3:12) was given during the reign of Hezekiah (728–686 BC) and is referred to much later by Jeremiah (Jer 26:16-19). Micah’s ministry thus seems to have coincided closely with that of Isaiah; the similarity of Isaiah 2:2-5 and Micah 4:1-4 supports this conclusion.
Meaning and Message
Micah’s message is clear: God’s plans for his people will prevail, and the nations will come to know God through his people Israel and his chosen ruler (5:2). The Lord’s faithful promises to Abraham and Jacob will be realized.
Much like Isaiah, Micah proclaimed that Israel’s hope would not be in escaping judgment, but it would be mediated to them through judgment. The people had become so corrupt that their only hope for an extended future was through the fires of judgment. That was a very hard concept for the people of Israel to grasp.
God’s goal is to have a special people of unparalleled moral and spiritual integrity and excellence. God will accept nothing less, but only his actions on behalf of his people can create righteousness in them (see 2 Pet 3:13). Many years after Micah, God would send a “ruler of Israel,” born in Bethlehem, to lead his flock and bring peace to his people (see Mic 5:2-5).
Nah.1.1-3.19
No one likes being in the path of imminent disaster, nor is the menacing threat of enemy invasion a pleasant thought. Can God protect in such circumstances? Will God judge wicked aggressors? Nahum’s reply is a clear yes. Nahum’s prophecy assures us that God still controls earth’s history. His messages are a warning to oppressors and a comfort to the oppressed.
Setting
In Nahum’s time, the kingdom of Judah was in danger of being swallowed by a great superpower, the Assyrian empire. From Nineveh, the capital, the great king Ashurbanipal (668–626 BC) brought Assyrian might to its zenith. Its military power and cultural influence spanned the length and breadth of the ancient Near East. Even the age-old city of Thebes had felt the conqueror’s heel (3:8-10).
These circumstances were less than encouraging for Nahum and the people of Judah. Israel, their sister kingdom to the north, had already fallen to the Assyrians in 722 BC, and Judah now faced the same imperial enemy. To make matters worse, Ashurbanipal had recently captured Judah’s king, the wicked Manasseh (697–642 BC), and taken him to Babylon (2 Chr 33:10-11). Following his release from captivity, a repentant Manasseh (2 Chr 33:12-17) attempted to undo his former wickedness (2 Kgs 21:1-18; 2 Chr 33:1-9). Despite his efforts, his prior evil influence still permeated the land. A cloud of doom hung over God’s people. Thus, Nahum’s prophetic messages of Nineveh’s fall and of hope for Judah’s future were timely.
The seeds of Assyria’s fall were already being sown in Nahum’s day. After King Ashurbanipal repelled a strong coalition of enemies to the west and resisted his brother’s challenge to the throne, he busied himself with literary and artistic pursuits. Affairs of state languished, and Assyria grew increasingly weak. After Ashurbanipal’s death (626 BC), one after another of the great cities of Assyria began falling to foreign invaders. Then the unthinkable happened—Nineveh itself fell in 612 BC, as Nahum had predicted.
Summary
Nahum opens his prophecy by depicting God’s power in two striking poetic passages, 1:2-6 and 1:7-11. These poems portray God’s sovereign judgment against wickedness and his goodness toward those who put their trust in him. The opening verses give assurance that God will administer his justice fairly.
Nahum then explains what God’s sovereign justice means in the flow of history (1:12-15). No nation is so great that it will not pay for its evil, and God is aware of the plight of those who are oppressed. The prophet assures the people of Judah that they will soon know changed circumstances. Peace and stability will return, and God’s people will be able to enjoy the uninterrupted worship of God.
After predicting the siege of Nineveh and the return of normal conditions in Judah (2:1-2), Nahum describes the fall of the Assyrian capital in two vivid portrayals (2:3-10; 3:1-7). Between the two accounts, Nahum contemplates Nineveh’s destruction in a brief, taunting song. With biting satire, he declares God’s intention of bringing an end to proud Nineveh’s greed (2:11-13).
Nahum builds upon his second description of Nineveh’s fall through another satire of the city. Nineveh would be no more defensible than Egypt’s capital, Thebes (3:8-13), which Assyria had destroyed. Nahum closes his prophecy with yet another piece of satire (3:14-19). Sensing the hopelessness of Nineveh’s plight, he taunts the city’s citizens by urging them to call upon all their resources in order to defend themselves. Of course, that would do no good. Nineveh would lie fatally wounded with no one to help or even mourn her passing.
Author
Beyond the little that can be gleaned from his writings, nothing is known of Nahum, the author of this short prophecy. In the Hebrew text, he is identified as “Nahum the Elkoshite” (1:1). Elkosh could be his clan name, but more likely it was his hometown, which was probably located in southwest Judah. The details of the book show that he was well acquainted with the city of Nineveh.
Date
Nahum mentions the fall of Thebes (663 BC; 3:10) and predicts the fall of Nineveh, which occurred in 612 BC. Therefore, Nahum spoke these prophecies sometime between 663 and 612 BC. Exactly when he did so within this span of years is debatable. It may have been sometime late in the reign of Manasseh (around 648–645 BC), perhaps during Manasseh’s attempted reforms after being released from Assyrian captivity (2 Chr 33:12-16). Or it may have been later, during the early or middle part of righteous King Josiah’s reign (640–609 BC).
Meaning and Message
No empire, however great, is beyond God’s scrutiny. Sooner or later, all must give an account of their actions to the Lord. The reality of God’s righteous and sovereign justice lies beneath the predicted judgment of Nineveh and Assyria. He is in control of everyone and everything on earth, and he has concern for all who suffer, whether from the horrors and atrocities of war or from some other oppression. A burdened humankind can be confident that divine justice will ultimately prevail.
God is long-suffering (1:3), and his people must be patient. The assurance that this good and caring Lord (1:7) has a distinct purpose for his people (2:2) encourages them to a life of faith and trust. Beyond the book’s menacing tone lies the good news of hope (1:15). The prophet predicts a coming day when God’s people will once again worship him in wondrous peace and joy. They will at last be free from those who would take away their freedom.
Subsequent writers of Scripture found in Nahum’s good news a promise of the good news of Christ (Rom 10:15; see also Isa 52:7), who provides the opportunity for deliverance from sin. Knowing that the unbeliever faces an even greater doom than that of fallen Nineveh motivates a missionary effort to carry the good news of salvation and eternal life through Christ to a dying world.
Hab.1.1-3.19
“Why do you allow injustice?” Habakkuk asked God. “Why do you tolerate evil?” God did not answer Habakkuk’s questions directly. Instead, much as he did with Job, God gave Habakkuk a vision of his deity. Whether or not the prophet understood God’s ways, he could safely trust him. Habakkuk’s questions echo in the hearts of all God-fearing people. The book of Habakkuk does not offer easy answers to the problem of evil in the world. Instead, it gives sound reasons to exercise faith in the sovereign, holy, and just God, who will ultimately bring justice to his world.
Setting
Habakkuk lived during a time when Judah had long been under the power of Assyria. The Assyrian Empire had engulfed most of the ancient Near East, from Mesopotamia to the Egyptian capital city of Thebes. But by Habakkuk’s day (late 600s BC), Assyria was showing signs of weakness that would ultimately spell its doom. After finishing military campaigns in the mid 640s BC, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal became preoccupied with literary and artistic pursuits. His growing inattention to the administration of his empire brought weakness abroad and uprisings within.
At Ashurbanipal’s death, Assyria was faced with a new threat. In Babylon, King Nabopolassar (626–605 BC) proclaimed his independence from Assyria and laid the foundation for a Neo-Babylonian empire that would last for nearly a century (626–539 BC). Nabopolassar conquered one after another of Assyria’s principal cities. The capital city of Nineveh fell in 612 BC, and the remaining Assyrian forces were subsequently defeated at Haran (609 BC) and Carchemish (605 BC).
When Nabopolassar’s son Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) succeeded him, his empire extended over vast portions of the ancient Near East. Nebuchadnezzar launched a series of campaigns against the kingdom of Judah, successfully attacking Jerusalem on three occasions and carrying many of its people into slavery. The last of these attacks (586 BC) resulted in the final overthrow of the kingdom of Judah.
Except for the final years of the godly king Josiah (640–609 BC), violence and injustice characterized Judean society from the evil reign of Manasseh (697–642 BC) to the fall of Jerusalem (586 BC). In many ways Manasseh was the opposite of his godly father, Hezekiah (see 2 Kgs 21:1-9; 2 Chr 33:2-9). Manasseh actively promoted pagan rites that pre-Israelite settlers of Canaan had practiced. This apostasy doomed Judah. Manasseh’s later repentance and attempts to undo his earlier evils (2 Chr 33:15-19) did not result in lasting change, and his son Amon reintroduced the pagan practices (2 Kgs 21:21-22). The subsequent ministries of prophets such as Zephaniah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, and the reform efforts of Josiah (2 Chr 34:1–35:19) also did not produce lasting change. Judah’s later kings were all condemned for their wickedness (2 Kgs 23:32, 37; 24:19; Jer 22; 27:1-22; 36:30-31). Even during Josiah’s reforms, the people of Judah remained entrenched in their apostasy.
Both externally and internally, the nation of Judah was in a precarious state. It was during this last, tragic period of Judah’s history as an independent state that Habakkuk lived and served as prophet (see Hab 1:2-4).
Summary
Habakkuk’s prophecy is a dialogue between God and the prophet. In the opening verses, Habakkuk contemplates the violent society Judah had become. He cannot understand why God seems to ignore Judah’s sin. Habakkuk feels that despite his repeated cries, God simply is not listening to him (1:2-4). God’s first answer is that he is about to deal with Judah’s violence by bringing an even more violent people, the Babylonians, to judge them (1:5-11).
This answer perplexes Habakkuk even more (1:12–2:1). Judah was indeed wicked, but why would God use people who were even more wicked to chastise his own people? God’s answer to this question focuses on his justice in punishing both Judah and the Babylonians (2:2-5). Both failed to maintain God’s standards of faith and morality, and both merited God’s judgment. In a series of five taunt songs (2:6-20), God lists his charges against all who are corrupt and do injustice. Undoubtedly, this included the Babylonians; even if God is using people to accomplish his purposes, those same people are still responsible for living according to God’s ethical standards. If they do not do so, they cannot escape punishment.
The final chapter opens with Habakkuk’s prayer for God’s mercy on Judah, even while he chastens them (3:1-2). Habakkuk then records a psalm of praise that reflects poetically on the account of God’s redemption of his people during the Exodus (3:3-15). Habakkuk closes with a declaration of commitment and a note of praise (3:16-19).
Author
Nothing is known about Habakkuk except that he was a prophet of Judah. One manuscript of Bel and the Dragon, a story included at the end of the book of Daniel in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, identifies Habakkuk as a Levite. If accurate, this might help explain the musical notations in the third chapter (3:1, 3, 9, 13, 19), as the Temple music leaders were Levites (see 1 Chr 6:31-47; 25:1-31). Habakkuk’s rich use of figurative language and his careful compositional structure indicate his high literary sensitivity. His hatred of the immorality and social breakdown that sin causes also demonstrates his deep spiritual concern that God’s people live by God’s standards.
Date
The date of Habakkuk’s prophecy is uncertain. The circumstances mentioned in the book fit best with a time late in Judah’s history, but before Judah’s exile to Babylon; therefore, the prophecy is most likely dated between around 645 BC (near the end of Manasseh’s reign) and 605 BC (Babylon’s first invasion of Judah). Habakkuk’s complaint about social injustice (Hab 1:2-4) and his attention to the Neo-Babylonian Empire (1:5-11; 2:6-20) also favor a date during this time frame.
Regarding a more specific date, three general positions have been advanced. (1) Many date the book to the time of King Jehoiakim (609–598 BC), whose evil disposition and wicked actions (2 Kgs 24:1-3) brought both condemning prophecies (Jer 22:18-19; 26:3-6; 36:27-32) and the threat of Babylonian invasion (Jer 25). (2) Others argue for the early days of Josiah (640–609 BC), who, prior to the finding of the Book of the Law in 622 BC, dealt with rampant apostasy (2 Chr 34:1-7). (3) Still others defend the traditional Jewish view that Habakkuk lived during the time of the independent reign of Manasseh (686–642 BC), whose wickedness (2 Kgs 21:16-17) and reinstatement of Canaanite worship and pagan rites (2 Kgs 21:1-11; 2 Chr 33:1-9, 19-20) caused God’s pronouncement of Judah’s doom (2 Kgs 21:12-15).
Meaning and Message
When violence and corruption abound and evil appears to rule, the faithful may be tempted to wonder whether God really cares or is really in control. Habakkuk’s dialogue helps us to understand that God does not despise such questions when they are brought to him in prayer from an honest heart.
Habakkuk’s prophecy reaffirms that God is in control of history and that his dealings are always just and right. Believers must be willing to accept God’s answers and delight in his will, even if it seems completely foreign to their own thinking. God does see and care deeply about what happens on earth. Although people may not perceive it, God’s sovereign hand is at work, and he will ultimately bring matters to a proper and just conclusion (Hab 2:2-3, 14).
The Babylonians worshiped the raw power that brought them prosperity. God’s charges against the Babylonians remind readers to worship God alone (cp. 1 Jn 5:21).
God’s message to Habakkuk also emphasizes that the believer’s holy life of faith and faithfulness must reproduce God’s ethical standards (Hab 1:12; 2:4). Those who trust and actively serve God will be able to rejoice in the Lord (3:18; Phil 4:4) and live triumphantly under any circumstances (Hab 2:20; 3:16-19; see also Rom 1:16-17; Gal 3:11; Heb 10:35-39).
Zeph.1.1-3.20
“That terrible day of the Lord is near. . . . It will be . . . a day of ruin and desolation, a day of darkness and gloom” (Zeph 1:14-15). Zephaniah’s words send a chill through the soul. Will the day of the Lord spell the end to everything? Zephaniah’s prophecy portrays the coming judgment, but it also presents God’s promise that his faithful people will one day enjoy a world of everlasting righteousness and joy.
Setting
Zephaniah lived in changing times. Toward the end of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal’s last military campaigns, King Amon apparently led Judah to participate in the widespread anti-Assyrian uprising that took place in many of the western countries of the Near East. Since Ashurbanipal moved swiftly to crush the rebellion, Judah’s leaders assassinated Amon (around 640 BC) and replaced him with his son Josiah.
Josiah was only eight years old when he became king of Judah. He enjoyed a long reign (640–609 BC) as a righteous king. In the eighteenth year of his reign, while repairs were being made to the Temple, a scroll of the Book of the Law was found (2 Kgs 22:8; 2 Chr 34:14-15). After hearing the law read to him, Josiah led his people in renewal and reform, reinstating God-ordained religious observances (2 Kgs 23:1-25; 2 Chr 34:29–35:19).
Before this pivotal event, the kingdom of Judah largely followed the idolatrous practices of Manasseh and Amon. Judah’s people were so devoted to apostasy that it ultimately brought about their doom (2 Kgs 21:10-25; 2 Chr 33:17, 21-24).
Zephaniah prophesied early in Josiah’s reign, after the death of Amon and before the Book of the Law was rediscovered. The time was characterized by religious indifference, social injustice, and economic greed (Zeph 1:4-13; 3:1-4, 7). A true prophet of God was needed, and Zephaniah was such a man; he may have helped prepare people’s hearts for Josiah’s sweeping reforms.
Summary
Zephaniah begins his prophecy by announcing the day of the Lord. This expression signified God’s coming judgment on the sinful world (1:2-3, 14-18), including his people in Judah and Jerusalem (1:4-13). Much like the people of Israel in the time of Amos some 125 years earlier, the people of Judah looked forward to “that day” as a time when God would vindicate them by destroying their enemies. Like Amos, however, Zephaniah had to tell his people that their covenant relationship with God did not make them immune to judgment. Because the day of the Lord would fall impartially on all wicked people, Zephaniah urged his fellow citizens to repent, to seek the Lord, and to live righteously in all humility (2:1-3). Perhaps then they might experience the Lord’s protection in the coming time of wrath.
The implications of Zephaniah’s prophecy are clear. The nations neighboring Judah would suffer terrible judgment because of their crimes against God’s people, their arrogant pride, and their defiance of the Lord (2:4-15). However, Judah would not escape the Lord’s chastening hand, because its spiritual and civil leaders had led society into total corruption despite knowing God’s standards. In addition, the people of Judah had not taken proper notice of God’s sovereign judgment on other nations for crimes like their own (3:1-7).
These impending judgments were a precursor to a coming time of judgment that would engulf all nations on earth (3:8). However, judgment would not be the end: The day of judgment would come so that a day of salvation could follow (3:9-20). God promised restoration and blessing for a remnant from Israel and for all people (3:9).
Zephaniah records God’s future plan to remove all proud and arrogant people from the earth; only those who “trust in the name of the Lord” will remain (3:12). God will gather his scattered people and restore them to their land, where they will live in righteousness and safety, worshiping the Lord (3:9-12). The “remnant of Israel” will enjoy the outpouring of God’s blessings and rejoice in him forever (3:13-19). The judgment and salvation announced in Zephaniah foreshadow God’s final act of bringing judgment and salvation at the return of Jesus Christ (see Rev 19:11–22:5).
Author
Little is known of Zephaniah beyond the lineage in 1:1, which traces his ancestry to Hezekiah. Jewish and Christian expositors traditionally equate this Hezekiah with the king bearing that name (see 2 Kgs 18:1–20:20), which would mean that Zephaniah was of royal descent and probably a positive influence in the life of young King Josiah. The unusual attention to four generations of family lineage indicates at the very least that Zephaniah came from a distinguished family.
Zephaniah lived in Jerusalem and was aware of conditions there (Zeph 1:10-13). He was a man of keen spiritual sensitivity and moral perception who decried the apostasy and immorality of the people, especially those in positions of leadership (1:4-6, 9, 17; 3:1-4, 7, 11). He denounced the materialism and greed that exploited the poor (1:8, 10-13, 18). He was aware of current conditions in surrounding nations and announced God’s judgment on those nations for their sins (2:4-15). Above all, this prophet had a deep concern for the Lord’s reputation (1:6; 3:7) and for all who humbly trust in God (2:3; 3:9, 12-13).
Date
Zephaniah himself recorded that his prophetic ministry was during the time of Josiah (640–609 BC; see 1:1). Several facts suggest that Zephaniah prophesied during the early days of Josiah’s reign, before the discovery of the Book of the Law and the reforms that followed. Zephaniah reported that religious practices in Judah were still plagued by Canaanite syncretistic rites such as those that characterized the era of Manasseh (1:4-5, 9). Many people failed to worship the Lord at all (1:6), leaders were enamored of wearing the clothing of foreign merchants (1:8) who had extensive business enterprises in Jerusalem (1:10-11), and Judah’s society was beset by socio-economic ills (1:12-13, 18) and political and religious corruption (3:1-4, 7, 11). Josiah’s reforms corrected much of this (around 622 BC; 2 Kgs 23:4-14). Therefore, a date for Zephaniah’s prophecy between 635 and 622 BC is likely.
Meaning and Message
Like his contemporaries Nahum and Habakkuk, Zephaniah presents God as the sovereign Lord of earth’s history. God, the judge of all (Zeph 1:2-3, 7, 14-18; 3:8), punishes the wickedness of people (1:8-9, 17; 3:7, 11) and nations (2:4-15; 3:6). This sovereign Judge has determined a time when he will intervene in the world’s history to subdue wickedness and bring in everlasting righteousness. That day (the day of the Lord) will include all nations (1:2-4; 2:4-15; 3:8). God will pour out his wrath in judgment against humanity’s sin and rebellion.
Zephaniah focuses on the basic problem of human pride (2:15), which engenders a spirit of inner wickedness (1:3-6, 17; 3:1, 4) and causes people to reason that God will not intervene in human affairs (1:12). They go on in their violence and deceit (1:9), and their greed oppresses those around them (1:10-11, 13, 18; 3:3). God may rescind the penalty that sinners deserve if they truly repent (2:1-3), but such spiritual virtues as righteousness, humility, faith, and truth are necessary (3:12-13). God will gather and purify a humble and faithful remnant (3:9-10), restore them to their land (3:20), and give them victory over their enemies (2:7, 9). Jerusalem will be a blissful place (3:11, 18) because God will save and bless his people (3:14-20).
Zephaniah’s message of personal accountability for sin is echoed in New Testament teachings (Rom 2:5-6; 2 Cor 5:10; Rev 6:17; 19:11-21). It remains true that God’s rich grace is available to those of humble heart (1 Pet 5:5-6) so that they may find forgiveness of sin (Eph 1:7) and the sure hope of everlasting life and blessedness (Titus 3:4-7; Rev 21:1–22:5).
Hagg.1.1-2.23
The Temple still lay in ruins nearly twenty years after the Hebrews returned to the land of Judah from exile in Babylon. Yet the people of Judah themselves were living in comfortable homes. Surely God’s house deserved better! Haggai pointed out this discrepancy and successfully roused the people to rebuild the Lord’s Temple. Haggai gave Israel a renewed vision of how their efforts would serve God’s plan for his people.
Setting
In 538 BC Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, issued a decree permitting conquered peoples who had been deported by the Babylonians to return to their homelands (see Ezra 1:1-11). The first emigrants to return to Jerusalem were led by Sheshbazzar, the first governor of the restored community (Ezra 1:5-11). In their enthusiasm, the returned exiles soon began to rebuild the altar and the Temple (Ezra 3:1-13), but local pagan residents threatened the Israelites and discouraged them from their God-given work (Ezra 4:4-24). The construction site lay neglected for nearly twenty years after their return.
The Hebrew people were gloomy during this period. Selfishness crippled community spirit, and apathy and disillusionment detracted from their worship. Only a small percentage of Hebrew exiles had actually returned to Judah, the city walls still lay in ruins, the Temple of God was a pile of rubble, and drought and blight ravaged the land. Judah languished as a Persian vassal state while the surrounding nations harassed the leadership in Jerusalem and thwarted their timid improvement efforts.
When Haggai began preaching in 520 BC, a severe drought was affecting the land (Hag 1:11). God sent him to motivate the Israelites to rebuild God’s Temple and to encourage the spiritual renewal of the people of Jerusalem. In response, the people resumed the rebuilding (1:14), and the project was completed in March 515 BC (see Ezra 6:15).
Summary
Each of Haggai’s four messages highlights a different theological concern. The first sermon (ch 1) challenged the Judeans to stop giving their personal comfort first priority and to focus on restoring proper worship of God by rebuilding his Temple.
The second message (2:1-9) assured the community that God had not forgotten the promises of blessing and restoration made by the earlier prophets. The glory of the Lord would once again fill the Temple (2:7). These were not just empty words to bolster a beleaguered remnant, but the sure words of God’s promise to his chosen people.
The third message (2:10-19) has ritual purity as its dominant theme. Haggai reminded his audience that the instructions of the law of Moses were still operative. God expects his people to be holy, even as he is holy (see Lev 11:44-45).
Haggai’s final and perhaps most important message (Hag 2:20-23) reestablished the prominence of King David’s descendants in Israel’s religious and political life. David’s dynasty was crucial to the restoration of the Hebrew people after the Babylonian Exile (see Jer 23:5; 33:15; Ezek 37:24). Zerubbabel was a descendant of King David; his commission to serve as the Lord’s “signet ring” marked the beginning of God’s restoration of Israel (Hag 2:23; cp. Jer 22:24) and pointed to Jesus Christ, a descendant of David (Matt 1:1) who would rule in righteousness forever.
Authorship
The book of Haggai is silent as to its authorship, but it is probable that Haggai wrote his own sermons (1:1, 3). The Bible records no biographic information about the prophet Haggai, but his ministry is attested by Ezra 6:14. Haggai probably wrote his book sometime between delivering his sermons (520 BC) and the completion of the Temple (515 BC), an event that the prophecy does not mention.
Date
Haggai delivered his messages between August and December of 520 BC, the second year of the rule of Darius I, king of Persia (see Hag 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10). Haggai’s ministry in postexilic Judea overlapped that of Zechariah, who began preaching in Jerusalem in November of that year (see Zech 1:1).
Literary Genre
While not a magnum opus like the books of Isaiah or Jeremiah, Haggai does have literary character. Haggai especially uses rhetorical questions to emphasize his thesis in three of the four messages (see 1:4; 2:3, 19). He repeats words or phrases to set the tone for his sermons (e.g., the repeated “look at what’s happening,” 1:5, 7; 2:15), and he engages in wordplay on occasion (e.g., Hebrew khareb, “ruins” [1:4] and khoreb, “drought” [1:11]).
Haggai’s written messages are presumably summaries of more lengthy sermons. The messages are oracles—authoritative messages inspired by God. Oracles often include formulaic expressions that use stock words and phrases. Several of these formulas occur in Haggai: the “date” formula (e.g., “the second year of King Darius’s reign,” 1:1; 2:1, 10, 20), the “message” formula (“the Lord gave/sent a message,” 1:1; 2:1, 10, 20), the “God-as-speaker” formula (“says the Lord,” 1:7, 13; 2:4), and the “covenant relationship” formula (“I am with you,” 2:4-5).
Meaning and Message
Haggai’s four brief sermons sounded a wake-up call to a community that was spiritually asleep. His message was to “get up and go to work” rebuilding the Lord’s Temple in Jerusalem.
Haggai correlated the community’s lack of agricultural and economic success with their neglect of the Lord’s Temple. He rebuked the people for their disinterest in worshiping God and called them to repentance and spiritual renewal. When the people responded positively and began the work of rebuilding, Haggai encouraged them with the promise of God’s continuing presence and help.
Haggai called the people of Jerusalem to authentic worship, trust in God’s word, personal holiness, and obedience to divinely appointed leadership. Haggai emphasizes the abiding presence of God’s Spirit (1:13-14; 2:4-5), a theme shared with his contemporary Zechariah (Zech 1:16; 8:23; see also Ezek 37:27-28).
Zech.1.1-14.21
The people of God who had returned to Judea from exile were being oppressed by neighboring nations. As a result, they were discouraged, and they let their Temple lie in ruins. Zechariah encouraged them with a vision of things to come. God continued to love Jerusalem and the land of Judah, and his unwavering plan was to live there again with his people and establish his rule over all the earth. Zechariah warned Israel not to repeat the sins that had led to exile, and he called those who wavered between God’s truth and human wisdom to return to God, obey the commands of God’s covenant, and practice justice in the land.
Setting
Cyrus, king of Persia, issued a decree in 538 BC permitting conquered peoples who had been deported by the Babylonians to return to their homelands (see Ezra 1:1-11). The first Jewish emigrants to return to Jerusalem were led by Sheshbazzar, the first governor of the restored community (Ezra 1:5-11). During his administration, the returning Jews laid the foundation for a new Temple (538–536 BC; see Ezra 5:16), but soon abandoned the project. The construction site lay neglected for nearly two decades as the people experienced economic hardship, political oppression and harassment, and spiritual barrenness (see Hag 1–2).
In response to their distress, God raised up two prophets to initiate the physical rebuilding and spiritual renewal of Jerusalem. The prophet Haggai, who preached for only four months in late 520 BC, challenged the Hebrew community to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple. The people responded favorably to Haggai’s message and began to reconstruct the Lord’s Temple that year (Hag 1:12-15). The prophet Zechariah complemented Haggai’s message by calling for the spiritual renewal of God’s people (1:3-6; 7:8-14). Zechariah’s ministry in Jerusalem lasted for at least two years. The rebuilding of the Temple was completed in March 515 BC during the reign of Persian king Darius I (Ezra 5:2; 6:13-18).
Summary
Zechariah’s task was to prepare the people for proper worship in the Temple once the building project was completed. He did so by rebuking, exhorting, and encouraging them.
The people of Judah were committing blatant social and moral sins; they were passively rebellious and spiritually apathetic. Zechariah called the people to return to God through genuine repentance (Zech 1:3-5). Only spiritual renewal could foster true worship and meaningful service in the Temple, which was under construction. Only obedience to the Lord would usher in the long-awaited blessing, prosperity, and righteousness of the messianic age (6:9-15; 8:13).
God’s plan to do good to Jerusalem was contingent upon the community’s adherence to God’s laws, especially those governing their treatment of one another (7:8-12; 8:14-17). Before the other nations would seek the Lord in Jerusalem, Israel had to seek God’s favor, act justly, and show kindness and mercy to widows, orphans, and foreigners (7:9-10; 14:16-21).
Authorship
The book of Zechariah is silent about its authorship, but Zechariah probably wrote down his own sermons. The superscription (1:1) identifies Zechariah as the son of Berekiah and the grandson of Iddo, as Ezra confirms (Ezra 5:1; 6:14). Nehemiah informs us that Iddo returned to Jerusalem from exile in Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh 12:4). Nehemiah also lists Zechariah as the head of the family of priests descended from Iddo (Neh 12:1, 16). This suggests that Zechariah was both a priest and prophet in Jerusalem.
Date
Zechariah’s ministry began just two months after Haggai’s, in 520 BC. Zechariah’s last dated message was delivered in 518 BC. The first portion of the book (chs 1–8) was probably written down between 520 and 515 BC, since Zechariah makes no reference to the completion and dedication of the Jerusalem Temple in 515 BC (see Ezra 6:13-22). Zechariah’s undated messages (chs 9–14) might indicate that his ministry continued well beyond the completion of the Temple and that he composed these chapters later in his life, perhaps as late as 500–470 BC.
Some biblical scholars assign chapters 9–11 to a “Second Zechariah” and chapters 12–14 to a “Third Zechariah.” However, the vocabulary and grammar show remarkable literary continuity throughout the entire book, and archaeological discoveries and socio-political considerations support a unified composition.
Recipients
Zechariah’s messages were intended for the people living in and around Jerusalem after their return from exile (1:3). Within Zechariah’s sermons and visions are words specifically addressed to the governor Zerubbabel, the high priest Jeshua, and the rest of the priests (see 3:8-9; 4:6-7; 7:4-7).
Literary Genre
Zechariah is prophetic literature containing messages that call God’s people to repentance, to renewed corporate worship, and to the practice of social justice.
In addition, Zechariah contains elements of apocalyptic literature. This genre of writing interprets current events and predicts future events by means of symbolic language, ciphers, and codes. Such writing is often cast in the form of visions that are explained by an angelic mediator (see 1:9). The settings, characters, and events of apocalyptic literature tend to go beyond ordinary reality. Apocalyptic literature announces an end to the status quo and opens up alternative possibilities as a result of God’s impending intervention in human affairs.
Later Jewish apocalyptic literature placed heavy emphasis on the future restoration of Israel in the day of the Lord. Zechariah’s prophecy was more concerned with social justice in the present. Three types of messages are usually associated with apocalyptic literature in the Bible: (1) encouragement for the oppressed, (2) warnings to the oppressor, and (3) calls to faith for those wavering between God’s truth and human wisdom.
Meaning and Message
The book of Zechariah calls for repentance, spiritual renewal, and a return to right relationship with God (1:1-6). Zechariah’s duty was to comfort and strengthen a small, discouraged remnant of God’s people (1:13; 8:6-15). Zechariah also reinforced Haggai’s summons to rebuild the Jerusalem Temple (8:9, 13).
Zechariah’s messages came to him as visions of the future that promised peace to Israel, judgment of the nations, restoration of Jerusalem, responsible government by God’s appointed leadership, and righteousness among God’s people (1:7–6:15). Zechariah emphasized that social justice was Israel’s right response to God (7:8-12; 8:14-17).
Zechariah’s last two messages instill hope in God by focusing on the future restoration of Israel (chs 9–14). The prophet forecasts the Lord’s return to his Temple (9:8-10), Israel’s rescue from her enemies (12:1-14), and the establishment of God’s Kingdom in Jerusalem (14:9-11). Zechariah also points to the Messiah, who would be a suffering shepherd (13:7) and a righteous king (9:9), bringing salvation to Israel and peace to the nations (9:10, 16).
Mal.1.1-4.6
Malachi had a multifaceted ministry. As a sensitive pastor, Malachi offered God’s love to a disheartened people. As a wise theologian, he instructed the people of Judah in basic doctrine that emphasized God’s nature. As a stern prophet, Malachi rebuked corrupt priests and warned of God’s judgment. As a spiritual mentor, he called his people to more sincere worship and challenged them to live by the ethical standards of God’s covenant. Malachi conveys God’s simple but vital word to Israel: “I have always loved you” (1:2).
Setting
Malachi wrote to Jews in the Persian province of Judea, probably during the reign of King Darius I of Persia (521–486 BC). Jewish exiles returning from Babylon had recently resettled in Judah, joining others who had not been deported.
At the time when Malachi preached, the Temple had been rebuilt, but it paled in comparison to Solomon’s Temple. The priests and the Levites were the power brokers of Judah, yet worship at the Temple was in a sorry state. The apathetic priests actually led people into sin, not out of it. Worshipers offered inferior animals as sacrifices and neglected God’s requirements for tithes and offerings. The hopes raised by Haggai and Zechariah for a revival of David’s dynasty through Zerubbabel seemed to have disappeared.
Malachi confronted a people given to religious cynicism, political skepticism, and spiritual disillusionment. They expected prosperity (Hag 2:7, 18-19), a king from David’s line (Ezek 34:13, 23-24), and the new covenant promised through Jeremiah (Jer 31:23, 31-34), but they saw none of these things. In the minds of many, God had failed his people.
Summary
Malachi presents a brief theology of God intended to correct the wrong thinking of the people of Judah about their covenant relationship with the Lord. Malachi introduces his thesis—that God loves Israel (1:2)—in his first message (1:2-5). The prophet then debates this thesis with his audience in the five messages that follow. The second message (1:6–2:9), aimed specifically at the priests and Levites serving in the second Temple, affirms that God is the Lord and Father of all Israel and deserves true worship. The third message (2:10-16) extends the implications of God’s love to human relationships, especially marriage. The fourth message (2:17–3:5) highlights God’s justice, appeals for honesty in speech and in business, and seeks genuine social concern. The fifth message (3:6-12) emphasizes God’s faithfulness to his word and calls Israel to a similar faithfulness in worship, especially in the giving of tithes and offerings. The final message (3:13–4:3) reiterates God’s desire for Israel to be honest and faithful in worship, in view of the coming day of the Lord.
Malachi’s pastoral heart is evident in his preaching: He begins and ends with a message of encouragement (1:2; 4:2).
Authorship
The book of Malachi is silent about its authorship, but it is assumed that the prophet Malachi wrote down his own sermons because of the statement in 1:1 (“the message that the Lord gave . . . through the prophet Malachithe message that the Lord gave . . . through the prophet Malachi”). We know nothing of Malachi outside of this book; even there, the only biographical information given is that he was a prophet (1:1).
Date
Unlike many other prophetic books, Malachi contains no date formula that links the prophet’s message to the reign of any particular king (e.g., Zeph 1:1; Hag 1:1; Zech 1:1). Malachi’s language is similar to that of Haggai and Zechariah, and it seems likely that Malachi was a slightly later contemporary of these two prophets. It is possible (though not certain) that the battle between the Persians and the Greeks at Marathon (about 490 BC) prompted Malachi’s message—the prophet may have interpreted the titanic struggle between East and West as a partial fulfillment of Haggai’s prediction that God was about “to shake the heavens and the earth” and “overthrow royal thrones” (Hag 2:21-22). It is also possible that Malachi wrote later in the 400s BC.
Literary Genre
The literary form of Malachi’s prophecies is similar to legal procedures (or trial speeches) and disputations. A disputation pits the speaker against his audience in combative dialogue. In Malachi, the disputation typically features (1) a declared truth claim by the prophet, (2) a rebuttal by the audience phrased as a question, (3) the prophet’s answer to the audience’s rebuttal by restatement of his initial premise, and (4) the presentation of additional supporting evidence. The desired outcome in a covenant lawsuit and in disputation is to leave the opponent speechless by removing all grounds for argument. This rhetorical question-and-argument format gave rise to the dialogue method of exposition peculiar to the later rabbinic schools of Judaism (see also the teaching method of Jesus in Matt 5:21-22, 27-28: “You have heard. . . . But I say, . . .”).
Meaning and Message
Malachi seeks to motivate people to conform to God’s plan. Malachi’s preaching has an overarching concern with the covenant that established a relationship between God and Israel, with its attendant obligations and responsibilities.
Three of Malachi’s messages deal with right relationships. The prophet’s premise is that right knowledge is essential to maintaining right relationships. He addresses right relationships in marriage by decrying divorce and encouraging marital loyalty. He also addresses right relationships in the community at large by focusing on honesty and integrity in the light of God’s character.
Malachi calls God’s people back to a right understanding of God as Israel’s Father, Master, and covenant God. Malachi urges a return to right worship through participating in the Temple sacrifices with integrity. Malachi also encourages appropriate giving to God, who is gracious and generous in his response to those who are faithful.
Matt.1.1-28.20
Matthew demonstrates that Jesus of Nazareth is the long-awaited Messiah, the king of Israel, who fulfills the Old Testament promises yet turns the expectation of his contemporaries on its head. The Gospel of Matthew shows how both Jewish and non-Jewish people fit together in God’s unfolding Kingdom. It challenges the reader to live with total commitment to Jesus Christ as king.
Setting
Matthew wrote his Gospel when the early Christian community was at a crossroads. Would it remain a sect of Judaism or separate itself from Judaism and become a separate faith? Matthew’s Gospel derives from a Christian community near Jerusalem, surrounded by Jews who had not left their Jewish faith. This community, unlike the Christians of Paul’s churches, had to answer socially to the stipulations of Jewish law on a daily basis.
The Christians reading Matthew’s Gospel were challenged to live as Jewish Christians among Jews who were fully committed to the Torah. The letter from James similarly evokes a Christianity that is still firmly attached to the synagogue (see Jas 2:1-26). Here is a Jewish Christianity that remains as firm in its commitment to the Jewish community as to its glorious Lord (cp. Acts 15:1-41).
Matthew’s Gospel tells how the life of Jesus affected Jewish Christians who were struggling with ritual, legal, social, and political concerns. For those early Christians, Matthew answered the pressing question, “How are we to follow Jesus in our day, surrounded as we are by Judaism, while seeking to declare the Good News of the Kingdom to all?”
Summary
Matthew’s story follows Jesus from before his birth until after his death and resurrection. Jesus experiences a series of potential dangers as a child (ch 2). As an adult, he embarks on a very short career, proclaiming God’s righteousness (chs 5–7) and performing astounding miracles (8:1–9:34); he broadens his reach by sending out twelve apostles (9:35–11:1). Most of Jesus’ experience, however, is utter rejection at the hands of Galilean and Judean Jews (chs 11–17). He confronts the Jewish leaders in the Temple during his last week (chs 21–22), announces a final series of woes against authority figures who lead people astray (ch 23), and predicts that God will judge and destroy Jerusalem (chs 24–25). Jesus is arrested, tried, and executed by crucifixion (chs 26–27) for opposing the Jewish leaders and challenging the status quo. Then he is vindicated by his resurrection and gives the great commission to his disciples, to make disciples of all the nations (ch 28).
Matthew shapes his Gospel according to two structural principles. First, following an introduction (chs 1–4), Matthew alternates teaching material with narrative material. Thus, we have discourse and teaching in chs 5–7; 10, 13, 18, 23–25; and we have narrative in chs 8–9; 11–12, 14–17, 19–22, 26–28. Second, Matthew records Jesus’ confrontation of Israel with God’s message about the arrival of his Kingdom in the last days (4:12–11:1; see 4:17), followed by the responses this message evoked from various people (11:2–20:34). Matthew then tells of Jesus Christ’s death and resurrection (chs 21–28) for the salvation of humankind.
Authorship
Matthew was a tax collector whom Jesus befriended and called to a life of justice and obedience (9:9). Matthew invited many friends to spend an evening with Jesus (9:10-13), and Matthew is named among the twelve apostles (10:2-4; see also Mark 3:16-19; Luke 6:13-16; Acts 1:13). Early church tradition reports that after he composed his Gospel, Matthew moved from Palestine in the AD 60s to evangelize India (Eusebius, Church History 3.24.6).
In the early AD 100s, Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, made the statement, “Matthew therefore composed the oracles in the Hebrew language [or, ‘in a Hebrew style’] and each interpreted them as he was able.” Papias’s statement is traditionally understood to mean that the apostle Matthew wrote a Gospel in Hebrew or Aramaic, and that this Gospel was later translated into Greek, perhaps by someone who also knew the Gospel of Mark. Recent studies suggest that Papias was referring to Matthew’s Jewish style, not to his language (Hebrew or Aramaic), because Matthew’s Gospel does not appear to be “translation Greek” (i.e., the type of Greek that is often found in materials translated from other languages).
In the 1800s, scholars became convinced that Matthew had used Mark’s Gospel as a source. These scholars argued that since an apostle would not have used another Gospel (and one written by a non-apostle at that!) to record Jesus’ life, Matthew was not the author of the Gospel bearing his name. But early tradition connects the Gospel of Mark with the apostle Peter, a fact that makes Matthew’s dependence on Mark more understandable. There is no conflict with one apostle (Matthew) using the accounts of another apostle (Peter) as a convenient source from which to shape his own report.
Occasion of Writing
Unlike the letters of Paul or the Revelation of John, the settings of the Gospels must be inferred from comments and emphases within the books themselves (see 24:15; 27:46; 28:15), since direct evidence is unavailable. Matthew appears to have been written at a time when Christians and Jews were fiercely debating such issues as how to obey the law (5:17-48; 15:1-20), who the Messiah is (chs 1–2), who the true people of God are (Israel or the church; 21:33-46), who the rightful leaders of God’s people are (4:18-22; 10:2-4; 21:43; 23:1-36; 28:16-20), and how Gentiles are related to the church and to Israel (2:1-12; 3:7-10; 4:12-16; 8:5-13; 15:21-28; 28:16-20).
There is serious debate as to whether Matthew’s Gospel sprang from a community that was still within Judaism or one that was already outside Judaism. In other words, had Matthew’s Christian community separated from Judaism, or was it still within Judaism’s umbrella? Or, was Matthew written for a general audience rather than a specific community? Early Christianity was diverse; some Christian leaders, such as James, maintained a long-term relationship with the Jewish communities. In discussing this question, scholars examine the following passages: 2:1-12; 4:12-16; 8:5-13; 10:5-6; 15:21-28; 17:24-27; 19:28; 21:43; 22:7; 23:1-39.
Date and Location
Matthew was probably written sometime between AD 65 and 80. Those who argue that Matthew used Mark’s Gospel as a source usually date Matthew after AD 70; those who claim it is independent tend to date it earlier. Some have suggested that Matthew’s Gospel was written in the AD 50s. Many today think that Matthew was written at Antioch in Syria, which is more probable than any other proposed setting.
Meaning and Message
Matthew argues the case that Jesus fulfills the ancient faith of Israel and the hope of the Old Testament: In Jesus, the Messiah and the day of the Lord have come.
Some people do follow Jesus. In following the instruction of Jesus, these disciples would evangelize the Roman world and build a community (the church) that would include both Jews and Gentiles. In general, however, Israel refuses to follow its Messiah, and Jesus utters disastrous warnings that they will experience the judgment of God (chs 23–25) unless they repent.
Matthew’s Gospel is distinctive in its presentation of Jesus as Messiah and Teacher, its emphasis on the Kingdom of Heaven, its strong call to discipleship, its constant pattern of Old Testament fulfillment, its incisive criticism of the Jewish religious leaders, and its universal outlook that includes Gentiles in the Kingdom.
The Messiah (Christ). Matthew emphasizes Jesus as the Messiah (Christ) (1:1, 16-18; 11:2-3; 16:16, 20; 23:10). He focuses on Jesus as the fulfillment of Old Testament expectations, though not in the manner his Jewish contemporaries expected. For Matthew, Jesus is clearly the Son of God, born of the Virgin Mary in order to bring salvation to his people (1:21). In short, Jesus is “Immanuel, which means ‘God is with us’” (1:23; 28:20).
The Kingdom of Heaven. The expression “Kingdom of Heaven,” used thirty times by Matthew, is a roundabout way for Jews to say “Kingdom of God.” Matthew uses this term to evoke (1) the invisible but present rule of God on earth through the saving work of Jesus the Messiah; (2) the fulfillment of Old Testament promises (4:17; 11:11-15); (3) the saving activity of God, often through quiet and humble means (11:25; 13:24-30, 36-43); (4) the power and strength of God’s activity (11:2-6, 12-13; 12:28); (5) the coming of the Kingdom within a “generation” (10:23; 16:28; 24:34); (6) the final, climactic judgment of God (25:31-46); and (7) the final, perfect fellowship of all God’s holy people with the Father (8:11-12; 13:43; 22:1-14; 26:29). The Kingdom of Heaven shows God’s perfect reign through Jesus the Messiah among his people, beginning with the church and consummated in the eternal Kingdom of glory and fellowship.
Discipleship. Matthew’s Gospel stresses Jesus’ call to men and women to be baptized, to follow him as disciples, to obey his teachings (28:20), and to enjoy fellowship with him. Jesus summarizes the requirements of discipleship in his Sermon on the Mount (chs 5–7), and this theme recurs throughout Matthew (e.g., 10:1-42; 16:24-26). Matthew shows the disciples overcoming their failures through Christ’s help (see 14:28-33; 16:5-12).
Fulfillment of the Old Testament. More than any other Gospel, Matthew highlights the deep correspondence between Old Testament expectations and promises and their fulfillment in Jesus. In the style of a Jewish commentary, Matthew links Old Testament texts to events in the life of Jesus that fulfill those texts and frequently draws out analogies between the Old Testament and the New Testament. Matthew’s procedure is anchored in the belief that what God has done once in Israel, he is doing again, finally and fully, in Jesus the Messiah.
Universal Outlook. In a book so strongly Jewish in orientation, it is surprising to find such an emphasis on the inclusion of Gentiles in the Messiah’s saving work. More than any other, this Gospel emphasizes that the Good News is for all, including Gentiles. This stance put Matthew at odds with the Jewish community of his time on two fundamental questions: Who are the people of God? What future is there for the nation of Israel? The birth narratives show that God saves Gentiles, and throughout the book Gentiles are portrayed positively. Since God is sovereign, his Messiah is King of all creation. Though God has worked especially in and through the nation of Israel (see 10:5-6; 15:24), the inauguration of the Kingdom of Heaven shares God’s good favor with the nations as well (see 28:18-20).
Mark.1.1-16.20
In his opening verse, Mark provides readers with the main key to understanding his Gospel: Although we can learn much about the disciples and other characters from reading Mark, it is most important to understand what he is teaching about Jesus: Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of God” (Mark 1:1).
Setting
It is generally agreed that Mark was the first of the four canonical Gospels to be written. Before the writing of Mark, there were no Gospels as such. The gospel traditions were circulated or “delivered” orally under the supervision of the eyewitnesses and ministers of the word of God (Luke 1:2). As these eyewitnesses began to die, it became important to record the gospel traditions in writing. According to church tradition, after the martyrdom of Peter in the mid-60s AD, the church in Rome asked John Mark to put into writing the accounts of Jesus’ life and teachings that Peter had delivered to them orally. As a result, Mark became the first to compose what we call a “Gospel,” a written account of Jesus’ life and teachings, from the oral materials about Jesus.
Summary
The overall structure of Mark is geographical. The first nine chapters narrate events of Jesus’ ministry in Galilee and its environs. In 10:1-52, Jesus and the disciples travel from Galilee to Jerusalem, and the last chapters of the book (11:1–16:20) take place in and around Jerusalem. (Matthew and Luke, in their use of Mark, followed this geographical outline, but John organized his Gospel in a different way.)
Within the geographical outline, Mark has arranged much of his material topically. Thus we have collections of miracle stories (1:21-45; 4:35–5:43), controversy stories (2:1–3:6; 12:13-37), parables (4:1-34), and teachings about the end (13:5-37). Some of the materials include indicators of chronological sequence: Jesus’ ministry began with his baptism (1:2-11; see Acts 1:22; 10:37) and temptation (Mark 1:12-13); his suffering, death, and resurrection occurred at the end (11:1–16:8). A few individual accounts are tied together chronologically, such as Peter’s confession at Caesarea Philippi (8:27-33) and Jesus’ transfiguration (9:1-13; see also 1:29, 35).
The major turning point in Jesus’ ministry is highlighted in 8:27-33, very near the center of the book. At Caesarea Philippi, the disciples confess for the first time their belief that Jesus is the Messiah (8:29). Upon this acknowledgment, Jesus “began to tell them” of his forthcoming death and resurrection (8:31; cp. Matt 16:21). Jesus’ death and resurrection are the dominant theme of 8:31–16:8.
Author
The earliest known reference to the authorship of Mark comes from Papias at the beginning of the second century. The early church historian Eusebius quotes Papias as having said, “Mark became Peter’s interpreter and wrote accurately all that he remembered, not, indeed, in order, of the things said or done by the Lord. For he had not heard the Lord, nor had he followed him, but later on . . . followed Peter” (Eusebius, Church History 3.39.16).
The early church was unanimous in attributing this Gospel to John Mark. It is unlikely that Papias and others would have attributed this Gospel to a non-apostle with a tarnished reputation (see Acts 13:13; 15:36-41) unless Mark were in fact the author.
The author of this Gospel was bilingual, as the Aramaic phrases in its Greek text suggest (e.g., Mark 5:41; 7:34; 15:34). He was also Jewish, in that he knew and explained various Jewish customs to his Gentile readers (e.g., 7:3-4; 14:12). John Mark was indeed a Jew who was raised in Jerusalem (Acts 12:12). He thus knew Aramaic (the native language of the people of Judea) and was familiar with Jewish customs.
Some have objected that this Gospel does not clearly indicate a connection between Mark and Peter and that it looks more polished as a literary composition than one might expect from a direct record of Peter’s eyewitness testimony. But if this Gospel was written near or after Peter’s death (see “Date” below), Peter had been telling these stories for over thirty years. Through continual retelling, his gospel account would have been become well polished. There are also references to Peter in this Gospel that might be due to Mark’s personal connection with him (e.g., Mark 1:16-20; 8:32-33; 9:5-6; 14:28-31, 66-72). It fits the evidence well to consider this Gospel as having indeed been written by John Mark, Barnabas’s cousin, based on Peter’s gospel accounts.
Date
John Mark probably wrote down Peter’s teaching about Jesus around the time of Peter’s death. Peter died in Rome around AD 64 in the persecution that Nero waged against Christians. Mark probably wrote this Gospel in the late 60s, and a couple of considerations support this hypothesis. (1) The emphasis on faithfulness in time of persecution (4:17; 8:34-38; 10:30; 13:9-13) suggests a time during or shortly after Nero’s persecution in the mid-60s. And (2) The discourse of Jesus recorded in chapter 13 suggests that the destruction of Jerusalem was rapidly drawing near—the Jewish revolt (AD 66–73) had probably already begun.
Audience
The Gospel of Mark was written for the church in Rome, according to tradition. It is clear that the original readers were Greek-speaking and that they were Gentiles, because the author explains Jewish customs (e.g., 7:3-4; 14:12) and distinguishes his readers from “the Jews” (7:3).
The original readers were Christians. They were familiar with the gospel traditions, for the author does not explain various Old Testament references (2:25-26) or such things as who John the Baptist was (1:2-8), who Isaiah the prophet was (1:2), or who the Pharisees and teachers of religious law were (7:1).
It is also apparent that the readers were Romans, as indicated by the “Latinisms” in Mark. In 6:27, he uses a Latin word meaning “soldier”; in 12:42, he uses a Roman coin (the quadran) to explain the meaning of “two lepta” (Greek coins); and in 15:39, 44-45, he uses the Latin word “centurion” rather than the Greek word with the same meaning that Matthew and Luke use.
Literary Features
Mark’s own editorial work can be seen most clearly in his introductory statements (e.g., 1:21-22; 2:1; 4:1; 7:1), in his explanatory comments (e.g., 1:16; 2:15; 5:8, 28, 42; 6:14, 17, 20, 52; 7:3-4), and in his summaries (e.g., 1:14-15, 34, 39; 3:7-12; 6:53-56).
Mark repeats various terms and expressions to show progress, such as “suddenly,” “at once,” and “immediately” (e.g., 1:23; 3:6; 6:45). He uses the Greek present tense in the narrative, rather than a simple past tense, to give a sense of immediacy (e.g., 1:12, 21, 38, 40, 44; 2:3; 3:13). Mark also often sandwiches one story within another (e.g., 3:22-30 into 3:20-21, 31-35; 5:25-34 into 5:21-24, 35-43; 11:15-19 into 11:12-14, 20-26); in the last example, this sandwiching indicates that the middle part (11:15-19, the cleansing of the Temple) is to be understood in light of the story surrounding it (11:12-14, 20-26, the cursing of the fig tree)—the cleansing of the Temple was a symbolic act of judgment (cp. 13:3-37). Thus, Mark’s editorial work relates different events and shows meaningful connections.
Meaning and Message
The Person of Christ. Mark’s major theological emphasis is the identity of Jesus of Nazareth. This emphasis is stated in the opening verse of the Gospel: Mark wanted his readers to know that Jesus of Nazareth is “the Messiah, the Son of God.” The title “Son of God” occurs frequently in Mark, and there are diverse witnesses to Jesus’ status as God’s son: the demons (1:34; 3:11; 5:7; cp. 1:24); God himself (1:11; 9:7); Mark, the author (1:1); a Roman centurion (15:39); and Jesus himself (12:6; 13:32; 14:61-62). Other titles for Jesus occur in Mark’s Gospel, including Jesus’ own favorite, “Son of Man” (e.g., 2:10). But in Mark’s Gospel all of these titles, as well as his actions (e.g., 1:22; 4:41), point to his identity as the Christ (or Messiah), the Son of God.
During his life, the Son of God needed to protect himself and his followers from the prevailing misconceptions in the minds of the people about what the term “Christ” (or “Messiah”) meant (see “The Secret of the Messiah” below). Jesus’ ultimate mission as the Son of God is explained through his death, in which he gave his life as a ransom for many. The call to Christian discipleship is a call to follow the Messiah, the Son of God, especially in his servanthood and sacrifice. Jesus’ ministry as Son of God during his life on earth also points forward to his return as the Son of God, ruling God’s Kingdom.
The Death of Jesus. The Gospel of Mark puts a lot of emphasis on the account of Jesus’ passion—his suffering, death, and resurrection. Throughout the Gospel we find numerous references to the death of Jesus (2:19-20; 3:6; 8:31; 9:9, 12, 31; 10:33-34, 45; 12:1-11; 14:1-11, 21, 24-25, 36, 14:64–15:47). Mark emphasizes that Jesus’ death was part of God’s plan. His death was a divine necessity (8:31), for God had willed it (10:45; 14:36). The Old Testament also teaches of the Messiah’s death (see 9:12; 14:21, 27, 49). Jesus came to give his life as a ransom for many (10:45) and to pour out his blood sacrificially in order to establish a new covenant (14:24).
Christian Discipleship. Mark emphasizes the importance of following Jesus by denying oneself and taking up one’s cross (see 8:34). Christian discipleship does not permit a half-hearted response but requires leaving everything to follow Jesus (1:18, 20; 10:21, 29). Christian discipleship might even bring persecution and martyrdom (13:9-13a), but Christians are promised that endurance in faith means salvation (13:13) and eternal life (10:30).
The “Secret of the Messiah.” Throughout Mark’s Gospel, Jesus tells others not to broadcast his true identity. This is likely because of the tendency for people to misunderstand who he is and what he has come to do. Yet the secret is not and cannot be kept (7:36). Jesus creates such wonder and amazement that he simply cannot remain hidden. But while the characters in the story struggle to grasp Jesus’ identity correctly, Mark’s readers have the privilege of understanding the full picture of Jesus’ identity in light of his death and resurrection.
The Coming of God’s Kingdom. The arrival of God’s Kingdom is central to Jesus’ message. People need to repent and believe the gospel because the Kingdom of God has arrived (1:14-15). Old Testament promises are being fulfilled. Life in the Kingdom is different from what it was during the time awaiting the Kingdom.
Luke.1.1-24.53
Luke describes the coming of Jesus as good news for the entire world—for people of every race, age, gender, ethnic group, and social position. With John the Baptist as his prophetic forerunner, Jesus came as the Son of God and as the Messiah, the King descended from David who defeats Satan and brings salvation and healing. As Jesus served and taught the people and proclaimed good news, the religious leaders opposed him. Jesus went to Jerusalem as the suffering servant, proclaimed judgment on the nation before being executed as a criminal, then rose from the dead to fulfill God’s plan and launch his Spirit-driven mission to all the world. The risen Jesus, the Jewish Messiah, is the Savior of the whole world.
Setting
Luke was written in the context of the growing conflict between the church and the synagogue in the mid-to-late first century AD. The early church did not view itself as a new religion, but as the fulfillment and completion of Judaism. The promises made to the Jews in the Hebrew Scriptures (the Old Testament) were fulfilled through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and continued to be fulfilled through the missionary movement of the early church. During this time, more and more Gentiles (non-Jews) came into the church, while many Jews rejected the Good News. Division grew between those who believed that Jesus was the Messiah and those who denied this claim.
The pressing question in this conflict became, Who are the true people of God? Are they the church, made up of Jews and Gentiles who believe that Jesus is the Messiah? Or are they the Jews who reject Jesus as a false messiah? Luke addresses this question and demonstrates that Jesus is indeed the Messiah who calls all people, Jew and Gentile, to put their faith in him.
Summary
Luke’s Gospel begins with a formal prologue, written in the style of the fine Greco-Roman writers of Luke’s day (1:1-4). This prologue demonstrates the author’s literary skills and sets out the purpose of his work: to write a reliable historical account of the life of Jesus that would confirm the truth of the Christian message.
After this formal literary introduction, the writing style changes dramatically. Luke describes Jesus’ birth (1:5–2:51) in a Jewish manner reminiscent of the Greek Old Testament. This birth narrative clearly shows the Jewish roots of the gospel message and introduces themes that are developed in the rest of Luke and Acts.
In common with Matthew and Mark, Luke introduces Jesus’ public ministry with accounts of John the Baptist (3:1-20), Jesus’ baptism (3:21-22), Jesus’ temptation (4:1-13), and descriptions of his ministry in and around Galilee (4:14–9:50). Jesus proclaimed the Kingdom of God, taught with authority, healed the sick, and cast out demons, demonstrating the authority of the Kingdom in his words and actions. As in Matthew and Mark, the high point of Jesus’ Galilean ministry was Peter’s confession that Jesus is the Messiah, followed by Jesus’ explanation that the Messiah must suffer and die in Jerusalem (9:18-22). Jesus then headed toward Jerusalem to fulfill this mission (9:51–19:44). In this travel narrative—the most distinctive structural feature of Luke’s Gospel—the author recounts many of Jesus’ beloved stories and parables: the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, the Rich Man and Lazarus, the story of Mary and Martha, and the Zacchaeus episode. The central theme of this section is God’s love for the lost and Jesus’ ministry to sinners, poor people, and outcasts. The theme of the entire Gospel is stated at the end of the Zacchaeus episode: “The Son of Man came to seek and save those who are lost” (19:10).
The climax of the narrative is Jesus’ arrest, trial, and crucifixion (22:1–23:56). The central theme of the crucifixion in Luke is Jesus’ innocence. Jesus is portrayed as the righteous suffering servant of the Lord (see Isa 52:13–53:12). At Jesus’ death, the Roman officer at the foot of the cross cried out, “Surely this man was innocent” (Luke 23:47).
The narrative resolves with Jesus’ resurrection (24:1-12). Luke’s most distinctive contribution here is the account of the disciples on the road to Emmaus (24:13-35). As he walked with two discouraged disciples who did not recognize him, Jesus taught them that his death was not a failure, but a fulfillment of Old Testament promises. All of Scripture anticipated this great salvation event (24:25-27). The narrative ends with a brief account of the Ascension (24:50-53), which is described more fully in the book of Acts (Acts 1:1-11).
Structurally, Luke follows Mark’s basic outline, with a Galilean ministry followed by a journey to Jerusalem and the climax of Jesus’ ministry there. The main differences are: (1) Like Matthew, Luke begins with a birth narrative, which serves as a thematic introduction to the work (Luke 1:1–2:52); (2) Luke omits one major section of Mark’s account of the Galilean ministry, sometimes called his “great omission” (Mark 6:45–8:26); and (3) Luke expands Mark’s account of the journey to Jerusalem from a single chapter (Mark 10:1-52) to ten chapters (Luke 9:51–19:44) and includes here a great deal of Jesus’ teaching and his ministry to outcasts in Israel.
Luke as Literature
Luke’s Gospel must be read and interpreted alongside its companion volume, the book of Acts. Luke and Acts are two volumes of a single work written by the same author (Luke). The two are a literary and theological unity—when Luke wrote his Gospel, he already had the writing of Acts in mind. Themes introduced in the Gospel, such as the salvation of the Gentiles, reach their narrative completion in the book of Acts. Scholars often refer to this single two-volume work as “Luke–Acts.”
Luke’s purpose in writing gives his Gospel, like the other three Gospels, a unique perspective and emphasis that can best be understood by reading Luke’s Gospel as a distinct account of Christ’s life. However, it can also be beneficial to compare the accounts in the different Gospels.
Authorship
Though all of the Gospels are, strictly speaking, anonymous (their authors do not name themselves), the author of Luke–Acts can be identified readily as Luke, a physician and sometime companion of the apostle Paul. In several first-person plural passages in Acts (the “we” sections), the author describes himself as a participant in Paul’s missionary activities (Acts 16:10-17; 20:5-17; 21:1-18; 27:1–28:16). Luke was a Gentile (Col 4:11-14), and one of his central themes is that God’s salvation is for Gentiles as well as for Jews.
Luke evidently came to faith in Christ through the ministry of the apostle Paul. Even though he was not present during the earthly ministry of Jesus, he was a careful and astute historian. He drew on eyewitness accounts and on written and oral sources as he thoroughly investigated the events he reported. His purpose was to write so that “you can be certain of the truth of everything you were taught” (Luke 1:4).
Occasion and Place of Writing
The specific place of writing is uncertain, but Rome, Ephesus, Caesarea, and Achaia (southern Greece) have all been suggested. The date is also uncertain. The two most common theories are that it was written at an earlier date, AD 59–63, or at a later date, AD 70–90. The earlier date is suggested by the ending of Acts, with Paul alive and in prison in Rome for two years (beginning around AD 60). If the Gospel was written before Acts, a date shortly before or during this imprisonment is likely (AD 59–63). A later date, after AD 70, has been proposed by those who believe that Luke used Mark’s Gospel as a source and that Mark was written in the late 60s, just before or during the Jewish war of AD 66–70 (see Mark 13:14).
Recipients
Luke addressed his work to a man named Theophilus (“one who loves God”), most likely a patron who sponsored the expensive task of researching and writing a book of this length. Theophilus might have been a questioning unbeliever, but more likely he was a believer who desired more instruction concerning the origin of the Christian faith. The individual address is like a dedication. Luke–Acts was probably also intended for a larger Christian audience, one made up primarily of Gentile Christians, but with some Jewish Christians as well. These believers were seeking confirmation and assurance that God’s plan of salvation was continuing, despite the rejection of Jesus by many of the Jews. Luke was affirming that the church, made up of both Jews and Gentiles who have accepted Jesus as the Messiah, represents the true people of God in the present age.
Meaning and Message
The narrative of Luke–Acts positively affirms (1) that Jesus is the Messiah promised in the Old Testament Scriptures; (2) that his death on the cross did not negate this claim, because the Messiah’s death and resurrection were predicted in Scripture all along (Luke 24:26, 46); (3) that the mission to the Gentiles was initiated by the Spirit of God, was predicted in Scripture, and was part of God’s purpose of bringing salvation to the whole world in the last days; and (4) that the Jews and Gentiles who make up the church are the people of God. The central theme of Luke’s Gospel is that God’s salvation, promised in the Scriptures, was fulfilled in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
A Historical Message. More than any other Gospel writer, Luke affirms that the story of Jesus is historical, and he assures his readers that the gospel message is authentic. He emphasizes that his account is based on reliable eyewitness testimony (1:1-4) and meticulously dates Jesus’ ministry with reference to the rulers of his day (3:1-2).
Portrait of Jesus. Luke’s portrait of Jesus reflects a theme of promise and fulfillment. Jesus is introduced as the promised Savior, the Messiah descended from King David. He was born in Bethlehem, the city of David, and will reign forever on David’s throne (1:32-33; 2:4, 11). Jesus did not accomplish salvation through military power and conquest, but by suffering the fate of the prophets. He died as the servant of the Lord, fulfilling the promises of the Old Testament. Through his death and resurrection, Jesus became the Savior of the world (Luke 2:11; Acts 2:36; 10:36). His servants now take this message of salvation to the ends of the earth.
Salvation for Outsiders. Luke emphasizes salvation for all who believe, especially with reference to the outsiders of Israel: the poor, sinners, despised Samaritans, women, and Gentiles.
(1) The poor. The Kingdom of God brings a great reversal of fortunes. God exalts the poor and the humble, and he will humble the rich and the arrogant (Luke 1:51-55; 16:19-31). The gospel is good news for the poor and oppressed (4:18) because they most recognize their need for God (6:20-21). It is impossible for the rich to enter the Kingdom when they trust in their riches instead of in God (12:13-21; 18:18-30).
(2) Sinners. God’s love for the lost is revealed most clearly in Jesus’ association with sinners and tax collectors. He called a despised tax collector, Levi, to be his disciple. As the Great Physician, Jesus came to heal the “sick” (sinners), not the “healthy” (the self-righteous; 5:27-32). He commended an immoral woman who anointed his feet because she recognized God’s forgiveness and loved greatly in response (7:36-50). He rebuked the Pharisees and teachers of religious law for their self-righteousness, hypocrisy, and lack of compassion. The repentant tax collector in the Temple received forgiveness, while the self-righteous Pharisee gained nothing (18:9-14). Even the chief tax collector Zacchaeus was forgiven when he repented and turned to God (19:1-10). Jesus forgave and offered a place in paradise to the repentant criminal on the cross (23:39-43). And Jesus’ parables express this same theme—for example, the father forgave his prodigal son when he returned to him (15:11-32). The message throughout the Gospel is that the coming of God’s Kingdom brings forgiveness to all who repent and believe.
(3) Samaritans. The Samaritans were despised outsiders, but in Luke, Jesus commends a Samaritan for his gratitude to God when he was healed of leprosy (17:11-19), and Jesus told the parable of the Good Samaritan, in which a despised Samaritan was the only true neighbor to a wounded Jew (10:29-37). God’s salvation does not depend on ethnic identity or social status, but on a repentant heart and a life of love for God and others.
(4) Women. In first-century culture, women were viewed as inferiors, but Jesus elevated women to a position of dignity in the Kingdom of God. Luke’s Gospel gives special prominence to women and mentions thirteen women who are not found in the other Gospels. The birth narrative is told from the perspective of women (Mary and Elizabeth). Luke alone mentions the women who financially supported Jesus (8:1-3). And in his story of Mary and Martha, Mary is commended for learning as a disciple at Jesus’ feet (10:38-42).
(5) Gentiles. The ultimate outsiders were the Gentiles, and Luke emphasizes that God’s salvation extends even to them. Though arising within Israel, Jesus would be “a light to reveal God to the nations” (2:32), and “all people [would] see the salvation sent from God” (3:4-6; Isa 40:5). While Matthew’s genealogy (Matt 1:1-17) emphasizes Jesus’ Jewish ancestry by beginning with Abraham, the father of the Israelites, Luke’s genealogy goes all the way back to Adam, the father of the entire human race (Luke 3:23-38). In his sermon at Nazareth, Jesus declared that God had always demonstrated grace toward the Gentiles (4:24-27). Luke’s message is that God loves all people everywhere and desires that all who are lost should be found (15:1-32; 19:10).
Rejection by Many in Israel. The dark side of this inclusion of the Gentiles and other outsiders is that Jesus’ message was rejected by many in Israel. At Nazareth, when he announced that God had blessed Gentiles in the past, the people rose up in anger to kill him (4:28-30). This episode initiated the rejection of Jesus by his own people and anticipated the Jewish opposition to the church (as recounted in Acts). Jerusalem rejected its Messiah and so stood under God’s judgment (Luke 13:33-35; 19:41-44), and this pattern continues in Acts. While many in Israel believed the gospel, still more rejected it. Israel was divided, and the gospel went out to the Gentiles. Luke emphasizes that this did not negate the gospel message; Israel’s rejection of the gospel was predicted in the Old Testament Scriptures and was a continuation of Israel’s history of stubbornness and hard-heartedness (11:29-32, 47-51; 13:34-35; 19:41-44; 23:27-31; Acts 13:46; 28:25-28; see also Rom 9–11).
John.1.1-21.25
John wrote his Gospel to inspire faith. John knew Jesus intimately, and John’s Gospel provides an intimate portrait of the Lord. John referred to himself as “the disciple Jesus loved.” His Gospel has become the “beloved Gospel” of the church. Here we meet Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman at the well, Lazarus, and doubting Thomas. John records for us many of Jesus’ most memorable sayings, longest sermons, and most profound miracles. Here we meet God face to face.
Setting
A small community of Christians lived in ancient Ephesus during the late first century AD. They had learned the remarkable news about Jesus and accounts of his life from the apostle Paul. Eventually, the apostle John moved to Ephesus and settled there, bringing his own recollections of Jesus’ life and ministry. In his later years, John wrote these recollections down, providing his followers—and us—with the fourth Gospel.
John’s desire above all was for his followers to believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God (John 20:31). He realized that they had not had the privilege of seeing Jesus’ many signs and miracles as he had (John 20:29). John’s authority and deep experience with Jesus ring out from every story he told. As an eyewitness to Jesus’ life (John 19:35), John had heard, seen, and touched the Word of life (see 1 Jn 1:1-4) and was a valuable source of many stories that are unique to his Gospel.
As the Christians of Ephesus told their fellow citizens about Jesus, they quickly found themselves debating about Jesus with rabbis in the local synagogues. Was Jesus truly the Son of God? How could he be the Messiah? Can Christians legitimately claim to be “children of Abraham”? Could anyone prove that Jesus’ claim of being sent from God was true? Guided by the Holy Spirit in his teaching and writing, John brilliantly led his Christian readers through these debates.
Tensions grew. As small churches grew up alongside synagogues, more Jews converted. Opposition to the Christian believers was inevitable. But John stood by the church during terrible persecution and conflict. When it seemed that the fledgling church’s struggle with the prestigious synagogue community would overwhelm them, John courageously gave witness to the ministry of Jesus Christ. When false teachers later brought internal controversy and conflict to the church, John again gave the community strength. Writing letters to encourage and exhort (see 1, 2, and 3 John), John became the heroic pastor–theologian of the churches in Asia Minor.
John’s writing is as beloved today as it was in the earliest years of the church. Few books of the Bible have influenced Christian life and thought like John’s profound and dynamic Gospel. By combining intimacy of expression with penetrating insight, John provides a deeply satisfying portrait of Christ.
Summary
John divided his Gospel into two main sections, which comprise chs 1–12 and chs 13–21. The first section, which is often called “The Book of Signs,” tells about Jesus’ public ministry of revealing himself to the Jewish world. The second section, often called “The Book of Glory,” records Jesus’ private words to his disciples and tells of his death and resurrection.
Chapters 1–12. The Gospel prologue (1:1-18) artfully summarizes the entrance of God’s Word into the world. Jesus was baptized and called his earliest followers (1:19-51). Then a series of remarkable events (chs 2–4) highlights Jesus’ revelation of himself to the Jews. At a wedding in Cana, Jesus turned water into wine. In Jerusalem, he used a whip to drive corruption and money-dealing out of the Temple. He debated the meaning of spiritual rebirth with a rabbi named Nicodemus. At a well in Samaria, he met a woman with a checkered marital history and offered her “living water,” which no well can ever provide. In each of these events, Jesus unveiled his identity.
In the following section (chs 5–10), Jesus appears at a number of Jewish festivals, using ancient Old Testament symbols and practices to reveal himself to God’s people. On the Sabbath, Jesus worked by healing a lame man. On Passover, Jesus provided bread for five thousand. In the symbolic light of the Festival of Shelters, Jesus healed a blind man, reinforcing his own identity as the light of the world. John’s clear message is that Jesus came to fulfill what Judaism had promised since Old Testament times.
Then Jesus began to prepare for his death and resurrection. John describes Jesus’ arrival in Bethany, a town just east of Jerusalem (ch 11). His friend Lazarus had died, and Jesus raised him to life. Following this remarkable event, Jesus made his final public appeal to the world to believe in him and his mission (ch 12).
Chapters 13–21. John turns to Jesus’ death and resurrection, reminding readers that the cross is not a sign of despair but a picture of glory. Jesus was returning to the Father and needed to prepare his disciples for his departure. At his final Passover meal, Jesus disclosed to his disciples the things nearest to his heart (chs 13–17). He told them candidly about his death and departure to the Father. He reassured them that he would not abandon them, but that he would return and turn their sorrow into joy. He promised them the gift of the Holy Spirit. Finally, Jesus prayed for them.
Following this Passover meal, Jesus led his followers east of the city and across a valley to an olive grove called Gethsemane (ch 18). Judas, who had agreed to betray Jesus, soon appeared with a large contingent of Roman soldiers and Temple guards. Following his arrest, Jesus stood before the Jewish high council to be interrogated, first by Annas and then by Caiaphas, the reigning high priest. By morning, the Jewish leaders took Jesus to the Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, who asked probing questions about Jesus’ identity. Pilate, coaxed by the Jewish leaders, decided to have Jesus crucified (ch 19).
The climax of John’s Gospel is Jesus’ resurrection from the dead (ch 20). This event begins a series of dramatic accounts in which Jesus appeared to his followers and encouraged them. He gave them the Holy Spirit and commissioned them to represent him to the world. Jesus then gave his disciples their marching orders (ch 21). He reminded them of his power (21:1-14); reinstated Peter, who had denied him (21:15-17); and instructed Peter to follow him in his mission (21:18-19).
Author and Date
As with the other Gospels, John provides no explicit evidence as to its author, although the enigmatic figure of the “beloved disciple” provides clear clues (see 13:23; 19:26-27; 20:2-10; 21:7, 20-24). The Gospel of John must be connected with this person, for he is identified as the eyewitness source of this record of Jesus’ life (19:35; 21:20-24).
Who was this beloved disciple? Beginning in AD 125, leaders in the early church wrote that he was the apostle John, the son of Zebedee, who was living in Ephesus when he wrote this Gospel (see, e.g., Eusebius, Church History 3.23). John was one of the Twelve and, along with James (his brother) and Peter, was part of an inner circle around Jesus (see e.g., Matt 26:36-37; Mark 5:37; 9:2). The Gospel of John reflects this close perspective. Most scholars believe that John completed writing his Gospel by around AD 90.
Recpients
John most likely wrote his Gospel for Jewish Christians living in Ephesus, Asia Minor, and the broader Mediterranean world. These believers were caught between Jewish and Greek cultures, and their grasp of Judaism may have been slipping.
While John’s knowledge of Palestine and Judaism is reflected throughout his Gospel, he assumed that his audience was unfamiliar with some particulars of Jesus’ world. For example, he explained that rabbi is a Hebrew word meaning “teacher” (1:38), and he gave an alternate name for the Sea of Galilee (6:1). At the same time, John assumed that his readers were familiar with Jewish traditions, concepts, and festivals. They were probably also familiar with the basic story presented in Mark’s Gospel. For example, John refers to John the Baptist’s imprisonment (3:24) without ever telling the complete story.
Meaning and Message
Revelation and Redemption. “The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness can never extinguish it” (1:5). The light of God has inhabited the world: Christ reveals the Father (14:9). In Christ we see the glory of God in a human being. And even though Jesus was persecuted, tried, and crucified, the light cannot be extinguished. Jesus’ purpose in revealing God is to redeem people: “The Word gave life to everything that was created, and his life brought light to everyone” (1:4). Those who embrace Christ’s revelation and redemption with faith will gain eternal life.
Worship and the Spirit. Worship must take place “in spirit and in truth” (4:24), energized and informed by the Spirit of God. Nicodemus had to be born of “water and Spirit” to enter the Kingdom of God (3:5). In Galilee, after feeding the 5,000, Jesus told the crowd that living bread is available in his body, which was to be sacrificed. He instructed them to consume his body and blood, symbolic of the Lord’s Supper (6:51-59). Yet worship that is focused only on the individual elements and not accompanied by the Spirit of God is worth nothing (see 6:63).
Jesus Christ. John recorded Jesus’ descriptions about his nature, origin, and relationship to the Father. Jesus affirmed his oneness with the Father (10:30; 14:9-10) and their unity of purpose (5:17; 8:42), as well as their personal distinctiveness (14:28; 17:1-5). Jesus even used the very title (“I Am”) that God used for himself in the Old Testament, thus affirming his own deity (see 8:58; 18:4-5; Exod 3:13-14).
The Holy Spirit. John’s Gospel underscores the work of the Holy Spirit as a central feature of Jesus’ human experience (chs 4, 7) and of our lives (chs 3, 14, and 16). The transforming power of God’s Spirit is a hallmark of true discipleship.
The Mission of the Church. God sent Jesus into the world (8:18) to proclaim his glory and to testify to the Good News of redemption. After his departure, the Son continued this mission through the Spirit (16:5-11), who in turn would fill the church and empower believers to fulfill the mission of Jesus in the world (20:20-23; Matt 28:18-20; Acts 1:7-8).
The End Times. Early Christians anticipated the return of Christ, and John affirms this anticipation. Yet in the meantime, believers can experience Jesus’ longed-for presence in the Holy Spirit. Jesus’ announcement of the Spirit’s coming echoes the language of his own second coming (see 14:15-26). In a vital way, Jesus is already with us in the Spirit as we continue to look forward to Christ’s personal return at the end of history.
Acts.1.1-28.31
The book of Acts has a central role in the New Testament: It connects Jesus with the emerging Christian community, and the Gospels with the rest of the New Testament. It frames the proclamation of the Christian message in both Jewish and Gentile settings and underscores the key roles of Peter and Paul in the spread of the Good News throughout the Mediterranean. It is the story of a dynamic message with an outreach to all.
Setting
Luke wrote at a time when the Good News about Jesus Christ was spreading from Jerusalem throughout the Mediterranean world. Luke was probably a Gentile (non-Jew), and his material on Christian origins keeps the needs and outlook of the wider world in mind.
Luke began his presentation of the message of Christ with an account of Jesus’ life (the Gospel of Luke). In the book of Acts, Luke describes how the Christian faith was carried across the Mediterranean world.
It was important for Luke to show that God’s love and mercy reaches out to all people—“God shows no favoritism,” as Peter told Cornelius (10:34). Christ is the only Savior (4:12), and all can believe in him for salvation and new life (see 16:30-31). Despite the tendency of Jewish Christians to keep God’s grace to themselves, the church came to the united conclusion that Gentiles are fully included in God’s promises (see 15:1-31). The message of the forgiveness of sins and new life through Christ is for all nations.
Summary
The apostles and other followers of Christ were filled with the Spirit and empowered to carry out the great commission (Matt 28:18-20). Acts specifically highlights the ministries of Peter (Acts 1:1–12:25) and Paul (13:1–28:31).
Acts follows a geographical outline based on 1:8. The Christian message and community of believers spread in Jerusalem (1:1–8:3), in Palestine and Syria (8:4–12:25), and in the Gentile world throughout the Roman empire (13:1–28:31). The closing word in the Greek text of Acts (akōlutōs, “unhindered,” 28:31) recalls the unhindered spread of the gospel to Jews (3:1–5:42), Samaritans (6:1–8:40), “God-fearers” (8:26-40; 9:32–11:18), and Gentiles (11:19-30; 13:1–28:31).
Purposes of Acts
History. Acts describes people, places, and events involved in the early spread of the Good News.
Geography. Acts shows how the message was taken from Jerusalem to Rome (1:8; 9:15).
Biography. Acts highlights the ministries of Peter and Paul, who, along with James, were the principal figures leading the early Christian movement. Other influential early Christians—including Stephen, Philip, and Barnabas—also play a significant role.
Evangelism. Acts gives clear examples of how Christian leaders proclaimed the Good News to different audiences (note the speeches of chs 2–5, 7, 10, 13, 22, 26). Acts shows that the gospel is open to all—not only to Jews but also to Gentiles (2:8-11; 8:26-40; 10:1–11:18), and not only to men but also to women (5:14; 8:12; 16:13-15; 17:4, 12, 34; 18:26; 21:9).
Politics. Acts presents a strong defense of the Christian faith to Jews (4:8-12; 7:2-53) and to Gentiles (24:10-21; 26:1-23). Luke argued that Christianity was entitled to the same protection Judaism enjoyed as a religio licita (“permitted religion”) and that it presented no danger to the Roman state (18:14-16; 19:37; 23:29; 25:25; 26:32).
Authorship
Luke was Paul’s traveling companion (see 16:10 and footnote there) and was with Paul during his later years (2 Tim 4:11). Several passages in Acts appear in the first person (“we”; 16:10-18; 20:5-15; 21:1-18; 27:1–28:16), which suggests that Luke was with Paul for those parts of his journeys. In Colossians, Luke is referred to as the “beloved doctor,” listed as one of several non-Jews who were working with Paul (Col 4:11-14; see also Phlm 1:24). Paul was grateful for Luke’s love and support as a faithful coworker and friend.
Luke was also apparently the author of the Gospel that bears his name. The theological viewpoint is consistent throughout both works. Each book highlights the historical reality of God’s action in redemption, the role of the Holy Spirit, the central place of prayer, the importance of angels, and the fulfillment of Old Testament promises in the life of Jesus and in the Christian community. Luke saw God as governing the course of history for the outworking of the divine purpose.
As a responsible Hellenistic historian, Luke used good historical methods and described his procedures in detail, showing concern to write an accurate and orderly account of the truth of Christian origins (Luke 1:1-4). Where other sources can verify Luke’s writings, he proves to have been careful and accurate in handling historical details. Luke was also a literary artist, a gifted storyteller who perceived and clearly portrayed the hand of God in the development of the Christian mission and community. He is one of the most important historical writers between Polybius, “the last of the great Greek historians” (100s BC), and Eusebius, the first major church historian (AD 275–339).
Place and Date of Writing
The precise location from which Acts was written is unknown, but Rome is likely.
Acts is generally dated between the early 60s AD and the end of the expected life span of Paul’s coworkers and traveling companions (mid-80s AD). Many scholars have opted for a date after AD 70, arguing that Luke used Mark as one of his sources (presuming that Mark was written in the late 60s). However, Acts makes no mention of the outcome of Paul’s trial (around AD 62); the death of James, the Lord’s brother (early 60s AD); the persecution of Christians carried out by Nero following the fire of Rome in AD 64; the deaths of Peter and Paul (around AD 64–65) and Nero (AD 68); the Jewish revolt (AD 66); or the destruction of Jerusalem (AD 70). Acts ends with Paul under house arrest (AD 60–62). Thus, a valid case can be made that Luke wrote Acts before AD 64. Those who date Acts after AD 70 would answer that Luke omits these events because they were not pertinent to his purpose (see Acts 1:8; 9:15; 28:31).
Recipients
The book of Acts is the second volume of a two-part work (see Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1-2). The prime recipient of Luke’s Gospel and the book of Acts was Theophilus (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1), whose name means “one who loves God.” Theophilus is described by the title, “most honorable” (Luke 1:3), which is used elsewhere for Roman governors such as Felix and Festus (23:26; 24:2-3; 26:25). Theophilus may have been Luke’s patron and benefactor. He was a Gentile who had received Christian instruction (Luke 1:4). Luke wanted him and others to have an accurate understanding of the Christian faith and of its spread into the Mediterranean world so they could be “certain of the truth” concerning Christianity (Luke 1:4).
Literary Characteristics
The material of Acts is presented carefully and precisely (e.g., 11:28; 18:2), and the accuracy of the information has often been affirmed by archaeology, geography, and related studies. Luke has combined historical accuracy and detail with a gift for vivid and dramatic descriptions (e.g., 5:17-32; 12:1-17; 14:8-20; 16:11-40; 27:1-44).
Acts is punctuated by the powerful speeches of Peter, Stephen, James, and Paul (2:14-40; 7:2-53; 15:13-21; 22:3-21). The varied literary styles in Acts fit the cultural settings in a remarkable way. Peter’s sermon on the day of Pentecost has a strongly Jewish character (2:14-40), while Paul’s preaching before the cultured Greek philosophers in Athens uses the forms of Greek oratory (17:22-31). These characteristics all support the historical authenticity of the book, as well as the literary skill of its writer.
Meaning and Message
Acts shows that the Christian faith truly fulfills God’s promises in the Hebrew Scriptures (2:16-36; 4:11-12; 10:42-43; 13:16-41; 17:30-31; see Luke 24:25-27, 44-47). It also demonstrates that Christ brought salvation (8:35; 10:36; 16:17, 30-31), prayer advances God’s Kingdom (1:12-15; 2:1-4; 4:24-31; 12:5), and the Holy Spirit energizes and equips God’s people to carry out their mission (1:8; 4:8, 31; 6:3, 5, 10; 7:55; 11:24; 13:9, 52).
Acts shows the importance of the individuals that God chose to carry his message and testify about Christ. At the beginning the apostles—especially Peter—testified about the life and ministry of Jesus (1:22; 10:39-41; see Luke 1:2) and explained Jesus’ significance in God’s plan to redeem humanity (2:40; 3:15; 4:33; 10:42). Later, other Christian leaders shared in the task of testifying for their Lord; Stephen and Philip are two outstanding examples of bold witnesses for the faith (7:2-53; 8:4-40). Other Christians simply shared their faith as they had opportunity (e.g., 8:1-4; 11:19-21). Later, God called Paul to participate in this enterprise as his “chosen instrument to take [his] message to the Gentiles and to kings, as well as to the people of Israel” (9:15; 22:1-21; 26:2-23). Paul, like Peter, occupies a central role in Acts as a major witness for Christ.
The apostles proclaimed that the death and resurrection of Jesus was God’s plan in fulfillment of Scripture (2:22-36; 3:15; 4:27-28, 33; 7:52; 8:32-35; 10:38-43; 13:26-39). Jesus was the one appointed to redeem humankind, so the apostles’ message was, “Believe in the Lord Jesus and you will be saved” (16:31). God offers his grace and forgiveness to all, and “there is peace with God through Jesus Christ, who is Lord of all” (10:36).
Finally, the book of Acts demonstrates that no opposition can prevent the Good News of Jesus Christ from spreading. The messengers of this good news faced imprisonment, physical harm, and even death. Nonetheless, the message spread from a small group gathered in a room in Jerusalem (1:12-14) to Jews and Gentiles spread across the Roman world. In fact, the book closes with Paul sharing the message freely at the epicenter of the known world (28:30-31).
Chronology of the Apostolic Age
Events in the apostolic age are difficult to date because few precise statements are made about time. Many events, however, can be correlated with known dates in the Roman world.
Events from AD 30 to 50. We know from Roman sources that Herod Agrippa I died in AD 44 (Acts 12:23), so his execution of the apostle James and imprisonment of Peter (12:2-17) must have happened before that date.
The famine prophesied by Agabus befell Judea during the reign of Emperor Claudius (11:28-29). When the church in Antioch sent famine relief to the church in Jerusalem, Barnabas and Paul were appointed to carry the money (11:29-30). It was Paul’s second trip to Jerusalem after his conversion. The Jewish historian Josephus dates the famine between AD 46 and 48.
While Paul was in Corinth on his second missionary journey, Gallio was governor of Achaia (18:12). An inscription discovered at nearby Delphi indicates that Gallio’s term was AD 51–52. The incident in 18:12-17 probably occurred at the beginning of Gallio’s term. Paul then left Corinth not long afterward, probably in the summer or autumn of AD 52. Paul had spent eighteen months in Corinth (18:11), so he probably arrived in early AD 50. That arrival date is confirmed by 18:2. When Paul came to Corinth, Aquila and Priscilla had recently been exiled from Rome. Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in AD 49.
Events from AD 50 to 70. Festus replaced Felix as governor of Judea during Paul’s imprisonment in Caesarea (24:27), probably in the summer of AD 59. This event helps us date events in the rest of the book of Acts. Paul’s arrest (21:33) was about two years beforehand (AD 57). Earlier that spring, Paul had celebrated Passover in Philippi (20:6; April AD 57). Paul had just spent three months in Greece (20:3), probably the winter of AD 56–57 (see 1 Cor 16:6). Previously Paul had spent three years in Ephesus (Acts 20:31; AD 53–56).
After Festus arrived in the summer of AD 59, Paul quickly stood trial and appealed to Caesar (25:1-12). The voyage to Rome most likely began in the fall of AD 59 (27:2) and ended early in AD 60 (28:11-16). Paul stayed in Rome “for the next two years” (28:30). The New Testament does not report the outcome of Paul’s trial, but he was probably released and then recaptured and martyred in Rome along with Peter and many others during Nero’s persecution (around AD 64–65).
In Jerusalem, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities in AD 62 (Josephus, Antiquities 20.9.1). Not long afterward, the church in Jerusalem left that doomed city and settled in Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis east of the Jordan. Thus, when war broke out between the Jews and the Romans in AD 66, the Christians largely escaped its fury. The war ended in AD 70, when Jerusalem and the Temple were destroyed.
Events from AD 70 to 100. The New Testament writers and other early Christians left few records of the period following the destruction of Jerusalem. It is possible that both Matthew and Luke wrote after AD 70, but they did not write about the developments that occurred after AD 70. Similarly, the apostle John probably wrote his Gospel and three letters close to AD 90, but we learn few specifics about the late first-century church from those writings. If Revelation was written in the early 90s AD, then it gives us a glimpse of what the churches in Asia Minor were facing during that time (see Revelation Book Introduction, “Date of Writing”).
As the apostolic age came to a close, the church around the Mediterranean grew and developed, as it would continue to do after the last of the apostles had died and the leadership of the church had passed on to the following generations.
Rom.1.1-16.27
Romans has been called the greatest theological document ever written. In this letter, the apostle Paul explains the Good News—the climactic revelation of God to the world through his Son, the Lord Jesus Christ. Paul reflects on the human condition, on the meaning of our lives on earth, and on our hope for the world to come. He constantly moves us back to the fundamentals of God’s truth revealed in Christ, and he teaches us to deal with the problems, failures, and disputes that characterize life in this world.
Setting
We do not know who first brought the Good News to Rome. Perhaps Jews from Rome who were converted when God first poured out his Spirit on the day of Pentecost (see Acts 2:10) took the message back to their home city. Several “house churches” quickly grew up, made up primarily of converts from Judaism.
In AD 49, the Emperor Claudius expelled all Jews from Rome—including Jewish Christians (see Acts 18:2). Although Paul had never visited Rome (Rom 1:13), in his travels he met some of these Roman Christians, such as Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:3-4; cp. Acts 18:2).
Claudius’s decree eventually lapsed, so by the time Paul wrote his letter to the Romans, many Jewish Christians had returned to Rome. However, in their absence, the Gentile Christians had taken the lead in the Christian community in Rome. Therefore, when Paul wrote to the Roman Christians (probably around AD 57), the Roman Christian community was divided into two major factions. The Gentile Christians now comprised the majority group, and they were naturally less concerned about continuity with the Old Testament or with the demands of the law of Moses than their Jewish brothers and sisters. They apparently even looked down on the Jewish Christians (see Rom 11:25). The minority Jewish Christians, for their part, reacted to the Gentile-Christian majority by insisting on adherence to certain aspects of the law of Moses. Paul wrote this letter to the Roman Christians to address this theological and social division, a schism that had at its heart the question of continuity and discontinuity between Jewish and Christian faith.
Summary
In the introduction of the letter (1:1-17), Paul identifies himself and his readers (1:1-7), expresses thanks for the Roman Christians (1:8-15), and introduces the theme of the letter: the “Good News about Christ” (1:16-17).
Before elaborating on this Good News, Paul sets out the dark backdrop of universal human sinfulness that makes the Good News necessary. Both Gentiles (1:18-32) and Jews (2:1–3:8) have turned away from God’s revelation of himself. All are “under the power of sinunder sin” and cannot be made right with God by anything they do (3:9-20).
Into this hopeless situation comes the Good News, which reveals a new “way to be made right” with God. God provided this new way by sending Jesus as a sacrifice for sin, and all human beings can gain the benefits of that sacrifice by faith (3:21-26). In 3:27–4:25, Paul highlights the nature and centrality of faith. He shows that faith excludes boasting and that it enables both Jews and Gentiles to have equal access to God’s grace in Christ (3:27-31). He develops these same points through reference to Abraham (4).
In chs 5–8, Paul discusses the assurance or security of salvation. The assurance that believers will share God’s glory (5:1-11) is based on the way in which Jesus Christ more than reversed the terrible effects of Adam’s sin (5:12-21). Neither sin (ch 6) nor the law (ch 7) can prevent God from accomplishing his purposes for the believer. The Holy Spirit liberates believers from death (8:1-17) and assures them that the sufferings of this life will not keep them from the glory to which God has destined them (8:18-39).
The Good News can only truly be “good news” if the message of Christ stands in continuity with God’s promises in the Old Testament. But the unbelief of so many Jews might seem to show that God’s promises to Israel are not being fulfilled (9:1-5). So, in chs 9–11, Paul demonstrates that God is being faithful to his promises. God had never promised salvation to all Jews, but only to a remnant (9:6-29). The Jews themselves are responsible for their predicament because they refuse to recognize the fulfillment of God’s promises in Christ (9:30–10:21). Nonetheless, God is faithfully preserving a remnant of Jewish believers (11:1-10), and God has still more to accomplish for his people Israel (11:11-36).
The Good News rescues people from the penalty of sin, and it also transforms a person’s life. In 12:1–15:13, Paul turns his attention to the transforming power of the Good News. This transformation demands a whole new way of thinking and living (12:1-2). The transformed life will be fleshed out in community harmony (12:3-8), manifestations of love (12:9-21; cp. 13:8-10), and submission to the government (13:1-7). The transformed life derives its power from the work God has already done and finds its urgency in the work he has yet to do (13:11-14).
In 14:1–15:13, Paul tackles a specific issue that was a problem in the church at Rome. Christians were criticizing each other over various practices related to the Old Testament law. Paul exhorts them to accept each other and to look to Christ’s example of self-giving love as the model to emulate.
The letter format of Romans emerges again at the end, where Paul touches on his ministry and travel plans (15:14-33), greets and commends fellow workers and other Christians (16:1-16), and concludes with further references to fellow workers, a final warning, and a doxology (16:17-27).
Date, Place, and Occasion of Writing
Paul probably wrote Romans during a three-month stay in Corinth near the end of his third missionary journey (Acts 20:2-3), around AD 57. The reference to Cenchrea in Romans 16:1—a port city next to Corinth—identifies the geography more precisely. By this time, Paul had completed his missionary work in the eastern Mediterranean, and his visit to Jerusalem was imminent.
We can determine the general situation in which Romans was written by reviewing Paul’s references to his prior ministry and his future travel plans (15:14-33). Four geographical references provide the framework: (1) Looking back, Paul declared that he had “fully presented the Good News of Christ from Jerusalem all the way to Illyricum” (15:19). Illyricum was a Roman province that occupied the same general area as modern-day Serbia and Croatia. Paul noted that he had planted churches in major cities from Jerusalem, through Asia Minor, and into Macedonia and Greece. This was the territory Paul and his companions covered on the three great missionary journeys recorded in Acts. (2) Paul’s intermediate destination was Jerusalem, where he planned to deliver a “gift to the believers” (15:25). This gift was money that Paul had been collecting from the Gentile churches he had founded to assist the church in Jerusalem (15:26; see also 1 Cor 16:1-4; 2 Cor 8:1–9:15). (3) After visiting Jerusalem to deliver the collection, Paul planned to go to Rome (Rom 15:24). (4) A long stay with the Roman Christians was not Paul’s final goal, as the language of 15:24 (“stop off”) makes clear. His ultimate goal was Spain, where he could pursue his calling to plant churches in places “where the name of Christ has never been heard” (15:20, 24). This information points to a date near the end of the third missionary journey.
Paul’s Purpose in Writing
Romans combines three specific purposes: to summarize Paul’s theology, to solicit support for a future mission to Spain, and to bring unity to the church in Rome.
Paul was at a critical juncture in his ministry (15:20). He had “fully presented” the Good News to the eastern Mediterranean basin (15:19). He now stood ready to preach the Good News in new territory. It is quite natural, then, that Paul took the occasion of his letter to the Romans to summarize his theology as he had hammered it out in the midst of controversy and trial for the previous twenty-five years.
Even so, summarizing theology is not Paul’s whole purpose in writing—Paul says little about certain key theological ideas (e.g., the person of Christ, the church, the last days). Nor does this purpose explain why Paul would have sent such a summary to the church in Rome specifically.
Another purpose then emerges: Paul wanted to gather support from the Roman Christians for his new mission in Spain. Paul’s “sending church,” Antioch, was thousands of miles from Spain. As the apostle sought a new church to partner with him, his attention naturally turned to the church in Rome (15:24). Therefore, it is likely that Paul sent this dense theological treatise to Rome because he wanted to explain who he was and what he believed. Because Paul’s message had been frequently misunderstood, he became a controversial figure in the early church. He was undoubtedly aware that some Christians in Rome were suspicious of him and that he therefore must provide a careful and reasoned defense of his position on some of the most debated issues of the faith.
Paul also wrote for a third reason: to heal a rift in the Christian community in Rome, which was divided over the degree to which the Old Testament law should continue to guide believers (see 14:1–15:13).
Meaning and Message
In Romans, Paul presented the Good News as he had come to understand it. The heart of that Good News is the offer of salvation in Christ for all who believe. Paul explores the problem of human sin, the solution provided in the cross of Christ, and the assurance of glory that a living relationship with Christ provides. The message of the cross of Christ stands both in continuity with the Old Testament (because its promises are truly fulfilled in Christ) and in discontinuity with it (as God in Christ inaugurates a new covenant that transcends the Old Testament law).
Interpretation
Since the time of the Reformation, Romans has been read as a letter about the salvation of the individual. Following the lead of Martin Luther, whose own spiritual pilgrimage was closely tied to Romans, the Reformers (such as John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli) saw in this letter the classic biblical expression of the truth that human beings are made right with God by their faith in Christ and not by their own effort. The Reformers viewed Paul as fighting against a legalistic Judaism that insisted that people had to obey the law to be saved. Jewish preoccupation with the law had led many Jews to presume that faithfulness to the law was sufficient for salvation (e.g., 10:1-4).
Many contemporary interpreters insist that this Reformation perspective left out important elements in understanding both the letter itself and first-century Judaism. Jews in Paul’s day, it is argued, did not believe that they had to obey the law to be saved. They were already saved, through God’s choosing them to be his people. Obeying the law was the way they maintained their status as God’s people. These interpreters say that Paul was not fighting against legalism but against exclusivism—against the Jewish claim that salvation was confined to Israel and was not to be shared with Gentiles. Accordingly, Paul shows how the Good News relates salvation through faith to the continuity of God’s people from the Old Testament to the New Testament and to the relationship of Jews and Gentiles in his own day.
This new approach to understanding Romans has much to commend it. Christian interpreters have sometimes missed the notes of grace and faith that are part of Jewish teaching. And Romans does have a lot to say about including Gentiles in God’s people and the relationship between Jews and Gentiles in the church.
Ultimately, however, neither the Reformation view nor the contemporary view alone explains everything in Romans. These views need to be combined if we are to appreciate the letter as a whole. At its most foundational level, Romans is about the Good News—and the Good News, first and foremost, is a message about how everyone can have a right relationship with God.
1Cor.1.1-16.24
In this fascinating letter to a multiethnic church, we see some of the everyday problems the early Christians were dealing with. In Paul’s advice on how to handle these problems, we find deep principles that shape his thinking about practical Christian living. These enduring principles—so different from the popular trends of Paul’s time or ours—provide rich guidance for us as we deal with similar problems today.
Setting
Corinth’s widespread reputation as an important city full of vice was linked to its geography. The city was strategically located on the narrow four- to five-mile-wide isthmus separating mainland Greece from the Peloponnesus (the large southern peninsula). It profited from travelers passing north and south along the main overland route and from those sailing east and west between the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf. To avoid the stormy hazards of the Mediterranean Sea, especially in wintertime, the owners of small commercial boats sailing between Italy and the eastern Mediterranean often had their boats dragged over the isthmus from one gulf to the other and spent a night or two in Corinth on the way. As a result, Corinth gained the notoriety of a port city and was widely known for prostitution and other vices. There was even a verb in Greek (korinthiazomai, “to act like a Corinthian”) that referred to sexual immorality. It’s not surprising that some of these problems made their way into the young church (see Paul’s strong words about sexual immorality in 5:1-13; 6:12-20).
Old Corinth was conquered and destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC. It was rebuilt a century later as a Roman colony and populated in large part by former Roman slaves. By the time of Paul’s visit, it was a cosmopolitan city, with Romans, Greeks, Jews, and other ethnic groups from all over the Mediterranean, as well as international visitors passing through the city. As a result, the members of the young church were multiethnic, which was likely a factor in the tensions it experienced (see Paul’s rebuke of their cliquishness in 1:10-12; 3:1-4).
Paul first arrived in the city during his second missionary trip (around AD 50), after his work in the northern province of Macedonia and in Athens. Realizing that the city was strategic to his evangelistic efforts, he stayed in Corinth for eighteen months (AD 50–52; see Acts 18:1-17). When the Jews took him to court for breaking the law, the governor Gallio threw the case out because it was a religious dispute. Given the freedom to evangelize, Paul made a number of converts and began a church there before he left.
Over the next five years, Paul corresponded with the Corinthians several times on difficult issues and even visited them personally to sort out some of their problems. The present letter, written during the period AD 53–56, was sent from Ephesus, in the province of Asia (western Turkey), where Paul spent two to three years on his third missionary journey.
Summary
Paul deals with a wide range of problems and questions facing the young church—some of which reflect the problems of the city itself—and he gives specific advice on dealing with them. Paul’s advice reflects the fundamental principles underlying his view of the Christian life, principles rooted in the Good News itself. Paul addressed the following issues:
•Criticism of Paul’s non-intellectual approach to evangelism (1:1–4:21)
•A flagrant case of sexual immorality in the church (5:1-13)
•The practice of taking fellow believers to court before pagan judges (6:1-20)
•Problems of sexual immorality (6:1-20)
•Questions about marriage, divorce, and staying single (7:1-40)
•The question of whether believers are allowed to eat meat sacrificed to pagan idols (8:1–10:33)
•The question of appropriate dress for women who minister publicly (11:1-34)
•Irreverent and disrespectful behavior in receiving the Lord’s Supper (11:1-34)
•Distorted perspectives on spiritual gifts and their practice (12:1–14:40)
•Skepticism about a future resurrection of the dead (15:1-58)
Authorship
Paul is widely accepted as the writer of 1 Corinthians. Some, however, question the authenticity of 14:34-35 (see study note there). In line with common practice of the ancient world, Paul used an amanuensis (secretary) to do the actual writing of the letter (see 16:21).
Date and Occasion of Writing
This letter to the Corinthian church was written on Paul’s third missionary journey, during his two- to three-year stay in Ephesus (around AD 53–56; see Acts 19:1-41). Paul had written a previous letter to the church in Corinth (see 1 Cor 5:9), and the Corinthians had replied, asking his advice on a number of points (see, e.g., 7:1). He had also received reports and visitors from Corinth (see 1:11; 16:15-17), making him aware of a number of problems facing the young church. This letter, full of advice on specific issues, is his response. It may have been delivered by Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (see 16:15-17) when they returned to Corinth.
Some problems apparently remained unresolved, resulting in a later personal visit to Corinth and a strongly worded letter that we do not have. Paul refers to these in the emotionally laden letter we know as 2 Corinthians, written from Macedonia shortly after he left Ephesus, in anticipation of yet another visit to the church (see 2 Cor 2:1-11; 7:8-10; 2 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”).
Meaning and Message
In 1 Corinthians, we catch a fascinating glimpse of what life was like in the early church. We see some of the practical problems the early Christians faced as they lived in a pagan environment and how they dealt with them.
Motivation for Christian Behavior. Paul deals with problems in the churches from a thoroughly Christian point of view, rooted in the Good News of God’s grace. In his thinking, Christian behavior is firmly grounded in Christian theology, in the message of Christ and the cross. The advice he gives on Christian living is not simply pragmatic, but solidly based on the relationship of believers to Christ. His own practical life has been revolutionized by his experience of God’s grace in Christ.
So, for example, when Paul addresses issues of sexual morality (5:1–6:20), he reminds the church that believers have been made new by the sacrifice of Christ and that they should live accordingly. His appeal for faithfulness is not that they should keep the law of Moses, but that they should understand what it means to be united to Christ and to be the sanctuary of the Holy Spirit (6:15-20).
When Paul discourages believers from taking one another to pagan law courts (6:1-8), he is in part concerned for the effect on their witness as Christians. He urges them to give up their rights out of love for others, as Christ did. The death of Christ has taught him that Christian love is sacrificial.
When Paul gives advice on marriage (7:1-40), he encourages those who are unmarried in that context to remain single so they can give themselves more fully to Christ’s service. Christians are claimed by Christ and can no longer live only for themselves.
When he addresses the freedom of believers to eat meat sacrificed to pagan idols (8:1-13; 10:1–11:1), he avoids formulating rules, asserting their liberty in Christ to eat anything. He emphasizes, however, that the effect of one’s actions on others is always more important than one’s own rights, so believers should readily abstain from actions that would be detrimental to others. Like Christ, they are to be governed by sacrificial love in all their relationships.
In Paul’s thinking, Christian behavior is a response of gratitude to the mercy and grace of God, shown in Christ and expressed in the Good News. The whole of the believer’s life is to express devotion to God and love for others (see 10:31-33). This is Paul’s equivalent to Jesus’ two great love commands (Matt 22:36-40; Luke 10:25-37). In this letter, we see more clearly than elsewhere how Paul applies these enduring principles to a wide range of practical problems.
Paul’s Understanding of Evangelism. When Paul is criticized for his rather unpolished, non-intellectual approach to evangelism (1 Cor 1:1–4:21), he emphasizes that only God can change a person’s heart. The real power does not lie in the persuasive powers of human intellect and rhetoric, but in the message of God’s grace and in the power of God’s Spirit to renew and transform. Conversion is not a matter of one person changing another person’s mind, but of God changing a person’s heart.
Unity and Love in the Church. Unity among believers is an important theme throughout this letter, as a number of the issues Paul deals with have apparently divided the church (see 1:10–4:21, cliques in the church; 6:1-12, lawsuits against fellow Christians; 8:1–11:1, different opinions on food sacrificed to idols; 11:2-16, different opinions on appropriate dress for women ministering publicly; 11:17-34, problems in taking the Lord’s Supper). Bound together as fellow members of Christ’s body by a common commitment to Christ as Lord and by the shared experience of God’s Spirit, believers are to live together in unity. This letter, which includes Paul’s classic chapter on Christian love (ch 13), highlights the importance of relating to other believers in sacrificial love, the kind of love shown by Christ himself.
Marriage, Divorce, and the Single Life. Paul has a high view of marriage and strongly opposes divorce. In light of the difficult environment for Christians in the first century and his view of the imminent return of Christ (see 7:25-31), Paul encourages those who are single to remain so, seeing singleness as an opportunity to give full devotion to Christ’s work in the world (see 7:32-35). The two ways of living (married and celibate) are not ends in themselves, but alternate ways of participating in the more important purpose of serving Christ.
The Lord’s Supper. This letter sheds significant light on early Christian understanding and practice of the Lord’s Supper, offering the only extended treatment in the New Testament (chs 10–11).
The Church As a Body. Paul understands the church as a dynamic, Spirit-led body made up of different parts, each with its own unique work to do (chs 12, 14). In these early days of the Christian movement, there is no distinction between clergy and laity, but the different roles create a complementary ministry of the Spirit’s gifts when Christians gather. Each person has a part to play in building up the body, and individuals are dependent on the Spirit to empower and guide them in their ministries.
The Resurrection. Among the New Testament writings, this letter gives us the most complete discussion of resurrection (ch 15), including the fullest account of those who saw the resurrected Jesus, the rationale for a future resurrection, and the nature of resurrection bodies.
2Cor.1.1-13.14
Second Corinthians shows Paul as a pastor. He passionately desires to win the Christians in Corinth back to himself, convinced that the Good News is above all a message of reconciliation. Paul faced criticism and accusations from fellow Christians who doubted him as a leader. Forced to defend himself, he opens his heart to this congregation to a degree not found in his other letters. Paul faced many dangers, including threats to his life, but being falsely accused by Christians he had won for Christ was one of his worst trials. Paul’s example, demonstrating how Christ loves his church, is a great source of encouragement and hope to Christian leaders and to their congregations.
Setting
The apostle Paul first came to Corinth in the course of his second missionary journey (see Acts 18:1-20). The city was ancient even in Paul’s day. It had developed into a strong, well-populated economic and urban center from the 500s BC. Under Roman occupation and influence since Julius Caesar reestablished it in 44 BC, it became a city of fine buildings, shops, theaters, and houses. Its trade brought much wealth, and the city prospered. Artisans crafted bronze artifacts, pottery, and especially the terra cotta lamps that were well-known throughout the ancient world (see 2 Cor 4:7). Agriculture was also key to Corinth’s prosperity (see 9:6-10; 1 Cor 3:6-9; 9:7, 10). Beginning in 27 BC, Achaia (southern Greece) came under the control of the Roman senate because of Corinth’s economic importance and geographical advantage.
The religious life of Corinth is well attested in contemporary writings. The Greek goddess Aphrodite (whom the Romans called Venus)—the goddess of life, beauty, and passion—was a popular deity. Strabo speaks of her vast temple on a hill above the city as a center of prostitution, and the moral climate of Corinth was infamously degraded. Scholars are now cautious about this opinion, since the political rivalry between Corinth and nearby Athens might have motivated Strabo’s denigrating remarks about Corinth. However, we know that Paul wrote Rom 1:18-32 while he was at Corinth (see Romans Book Introduction, “Date, Place, and Occasion of Writing”; cp. Acts 20:2-3), and 2 Corinthians undeniably reflects his awareness of serious moral problems there (see 2 Cor 6:14-17; 12:19-21).
Into this city Paul brought the message of Christ. By God’s grace and the ministry of his servant, a company of believers was established, and the nascent church grew. Paul’s converts, whom he regarded as his children (6:13; 12:14; 1 Cor 4:15), were a mixed lot, a cross-section of cosmopolitan society in this city that was famous for its pretensions to wisdom and rhetoric, its popular culture, its trade, its two harbors, and its love of life. At the climax of his list of trials in 2 Corinthians 11:23-28, Paul writes: “Then, besides all this, I have the daily burden of my concern for all the churches.” No congregation seemed to bring Paul more concern than the church at Corinth.
Summary
This letter arises out of challenges to Paul’s apostolic authority and the infiltration of false teachers. So, in the first half of 2 Corinthians (chs 1–6), Paul outlines his understanding of Christian service. Suffering for Christ’s sake is a necessary part of service (1:1-24), though it is hard to endure when we are offended by fellow Christians (2:1-17). The message of Good News gives life in the Spirit and God’s salvation, replacing the religion of the old covenant, though it has continuity with it (3:1-18). The power of the message shows through the weakness of God’s servants (4:1-18) and centers in the death of God’s Son, by which we are restored to God’s favor (5:1-21). Christian living is marked by devotion and dedication that distinguish believers from the evils of the world (6:1-18).
In the second half of the letter (chs 7–13), Paul explains how he came to write his letters to Corinth (7:1-16), reveals principles of giving and stewardship in discussing the collection for the Jerusalem church (8:1–9:15), and makes a spirited defense of his apostolic work against those who denigrated his status because of his weaknesses (chs 10–13).
Author
No one has seriously challenged Paul’s authorship of 2 Corinthians. The sole exception is that 6:14–7:1 is sometimes regarded as a non-Pauline insertion, perhaps from a sect, since it is similar in terminology to the Dead Sea Scrolls. More likely it is simply a digression, or perhaps it has been taken from another of Paul’s letters to Corinth and inserted here. Either way, the material in it was most likely written by Paul himself to deal with the moral and spiritual situation in the church at Corinth.
Date and Occasion of Writing
During his two- to three-year stay in Ephesus (AD 53~56), Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and sent it to the church in Corinth by the hand of Timothy (see 1 Cor 16:10-11; 1 Corinthians Book Introduction, “Date and Occasion of Writing”). Apparently 1 Corinthians was not well-received, and some of the Corinthians were now questioning Paul’s apostolic authority. This crisis was anticipated in 1 Cor 4:18-21, but the challenge became more vocal and aggressive. So Paul made a personal visit from Ephesus (2 Cor 2:1). This visit apparently failed to achieve its purpose, as Paul’s opponents apparently withstood him. Humiliated before the church and insulted by a prominent member, Paul returned to Ephesus in great distress. He then wrote a “severe letter” and sent it with Titus to Corinth (2:3-13). This severe letter, which has been lost, was successful in finally bringing the Corinthians to repentance (7:8-10).
Meanwhile, Paul left Ephesus after severe trials (Acts 19:23-41; cp. 1:8-11; 4:8-15; 6:4-10) and traveled to Macedonia (Acts 20:1). In Macedonia Paul found Titus, who had arrived from Corinth, and Titus gave Paul a very encouraging report about the situation there (2 Cor 7:5-7). In response to that report, Paul wrote 2 Corinthians (around AD 56) and sent it back to Corinth with Titus (8:6, 16-19). Paul then traveled on to Corinth himself, where he spent three months (see Acts 20:1-3).
The Unity of 2 Corinthians as a Letter
Although there is no question that Paul himself wrote 2 Corinthians, there are questions about whether it was all written and sent as one letter.
2 Cor 6:14–7:1. In 1 Corinthians 5:9, Paul mentions a letter that he had previously sent to Corinth dealing with the issue of associating with immoral people. Although this letter has been lost, some scholars believe that at least part of it is preserved as 2 Corinthians 6:14–7:1, which addresses the same subject. If 6:14–7:1 is a fragment of that previous letter, it might explain why this section seems to be inserted in the discussion, which would otherwise flow naturally from 6:13 directly to 7:2. On the other hand, Paul often digressed while writing his letters, so it is also possible that 6:14–7:1 is simply a digression.
2 Cor 10:1–13:14. The last four chapters of 2 Corinthians are a puzzle. The tone of these chapters is indignant and ironic. Some see them as part of Paul’s “severe letter” (see 7:8); but that is not likely, since the Corinthians responded to his severe letter with repentance (7:9). It makes more sense to regard chapters 10–13 as being written later than chapters 1–9 in response to a new situation that arose following the coming of false teachers to Corinth (cp. 11:4, 12-15). The Corinthians had warmly received these teachers, who quickly reopened old wounds and insinuated that Paul was not a true apostle nor even a Christian at all (see 10:7, 10; 11:5; 12:11). When Paul sensed the danger, he wrote a blistering note full of irony, invective, ridicule, and self-defense. At the heart of chapters 10–13 is Paul’s “Fool’s Speech” (11:16–12:10), in which he resorts to boasting because the need compels him (11:1, 16-17).
We cannot tell whether the words preserved in chapters 10–13 succeeded in warding off these threats and defending once more Paul’s apostolic standing in Corinth. Paul followed up this letter with a visit (Acts 20:2) as he came to Greece, presumably Corinth. He eventually sailed to Jerusalem with the money donated by the churches, including Corinth. So it is possible that Paul’s last letter was the most effective of all, and the Corinthians were finally won over. Forty years after the Corinthian correspondence, a letter known as 1 Clement, written by a leader at Rome to the Corinthians, speaks warmly of Paul’s ministry.
Meaning and Message
Second Corinthians is a very human document that opens a window onto the inner life of the apostle Paul. For that reason, it has been called Paul’s most personal letter.
The Minister’s Job Description. The first half of the letter (1:1–7:16) explains and describes the responsibilities and privileges of a leader. The message of Good News is new (3:1-18) and must be validated by the lifestyle of those who proclaim it. And the Good News brings reconciliation (5:1-21).
The Heart of the Good News. Chapter 5 contains one of the fullest accounts of Paul’s central message (5:18-21). Paul had already told the Corinthians that he came preaching Christ crucified (1 Cor 1:18–2:2). Now he explains how this message is to be applied in light of the current situation: People are out of harmony with God because of sin, so God has acted in response to human need. God in Christ has dealt with the problem of sin and alienation by becoming human and taking our sin upon himself at the cross. Through Christ, we are restored to a relationship of peace and acceptance with God. We are urged to be reconciled to God (2 Cor 5:20) and to maintain our reconciliation with God. This relationship needs to be maintained throughout our lives, which implies loyalty to the Good News as Paul proclaimed it and separation from moral evils such as those that plagued the city of Corinth.
The Call to Holy Living. Running through this letter is a summons to holy life. The two governing images are of the church as a temple (6:14–7:1) and as a bride (11:2). Both images speak of purity and dedication. The Temple is the holy place where God is worshiped, so his people should be consecrated to this task. The bride of Christ should be faithful to her husband.
The Need for Generous Giving. Two lengthy chapters (8:1–9:15) are devoted to this single theme. Those who are at strife in Corinth need to consider the needs of others, especially the poverty-stricken Jewish believers in Jerusalem. The incarnate Lord Jesus Christ is our supreme model for sacrificial giving (8:9).
What was at stake at Corinth was the essence of the Good News as expressed in the way of the cross. Paul’s experience of suffering and weakness as an apostle was, to the believers in Corinth, a seeming contradiction to his authority. In fact, however, the essence of the Good News is for people to accept another person’s (Christ’s) suffering on their behalf. This is still relevant to leadership and daily living among Christians today.
Gal.1.1-6.18
Is a person saved by faith alone, or by a combination of faith plus works? Paul’s letter to the Galatians proclaims that salvation is through faith alone. It also emphasizes freedom in Christ to live by the power of the Spirit, knowing that our relationship with God is not based on our performance but on the finished work of Jesus Christ. So we are truly free, not to serve our sinful nature, but to love and serve our Lord and others.
Setting
When Paul and Barnabas set out from Antioch of Syria on their first missionary journey, they headed across the northeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea through Cyprus, across the Taurus Mountains of Pamphylia, and into the south of the Roman province of Galatia. There Paul and Barnabas established churches in Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts 13:13–14:28). Many believed the Good News, but the message also aroused opposition and persecution. Paul and Barnabas then returned to Antioch of Syria, reporting on what God had accomplished “and how he had opened the door of faith to the Gentiles, too” (Acts 14:27).
From the results of Paul’s ministry in Galatia and from Peter’s experience with Cornelius and his household in Caesarea (see Acts 10:1-48), it became clear that salvation was available to Gentiles as well as Jews on the basis of faith in Jesus Christ. Gentiles did not have to become Jews in order to become full members of God’s family. They had only to put their faith in Jesus Christ for salvation.
Even so, in the period before the council in Jerusalem (AD 49 or 50; Acts 15:1-41), controversy over the relationship of Jews and Gentiles in the church became more heated. When Peter returned to Jerusalem from his groundbreaking work among Gentiles in Caesarea, he faced immediate criticism and pressure from Jewish compatriots who opposed his eating with uncircumcised Gentiles. He answered with an account of the Spirit’s work, which temporarily stilled the criticism (Acts 11:1-18).
Some Jewish Christians continued to believe that Gentiles should practice Judaism in order to be Christians. Those who believed this are often referred to as “Judaizers.” Some of these Judaizers went to Galatia and began claiming that Paul’s teaching about the Good News was inadequate. They denigrated Paul’s status as an apostle, declaring that he had learned the Good News from the “real” apostles in Jerusalem. They asserted that Paul had changed the message, and that his version of the gospel had never received the apostles’ sanction. The Judaizers argued that Paul’s law-free gospel was incomplete, and they claimed that the real gospel required Gentiles to be circumcised and to keep other aspects of the law. Largely in response to the challenge brought by the Judaizers, Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians.
Summary
After briefly identifying himself and greeting his recipients (Gal 1:1-5), Paul launches directly into his thesis: The Good News that he preaches is the only true Good News (1:6-7), he is a genuine apostle of Christ (1:1, 10), and his opponents will suffer God’s judgment for their false message (1:8-9). The rest of the letter centers around these assertions.
Paul first demonstrates that he is a genuine apostle of Christ, preaching the true Good News (1:11–2:21). To this end, Paul reminds the Galatians of the kind of person he used to be (1:13-14) and recounts his conversion experience and his calling by God (1:15-16a). Paul received the Good News as a direct revelation from Christ (1:11-12) rather than from the other apostles in Jerusalem (1:16-24). Still, the other apostles recognized Paul’s apostleship and message (2:1-10), and they had nothing to add or change. Further, Paul displayed his genuineness in an instance when Peter and some others compromised the Good News contrary to their own principles (2:11-21).
Paul then makes an argument that his presentation of the Good News is scriptural and true (3:1–5:12). The Galatians had experienced the Spirit by faith (3:1-5), so they—like all who have faith in Christ—would experience the same blessing that Abraham received (3:6-9). By contrast, trying to be righteous by keeping the law only brings a curse (3:10-12). Christ rescued us from that curse and made God’s blessing available to all who have faith in him (3:13-14). God’s promise to Abraham shows that the promise is given on the basis of faith, not law (3:15-18). God’s demand for righteousness was fulfilled by Christ, not by keeping the law, and those who have faith in Christ become recipients of God’s promise to Abraham.
The law’s purpose is not to make people righteous or to make them recipients of God’s promises. Instead, it brings awareness of sin and points to Christ and faith in him (3:19-22). Now that Christ has come, those who have faith in him are God’s children and heirs of his promises (3:23–4:7). In light of this, the Galatians’ return to trusting in the law was a dreadful return to slavery (4:8-11), so Paul personally appeals to them to reconsider (4:12-20). He draws an analogy between Hagar and Sarah and the old and new covenants, showing that Christ brings freedom, not slavery (4:21-31). God’s people must live in freedom (5:1), reject a reliance on obedience to the law for salvation (5:2-4), and live by faith (5:5-6), because a message of salvation through the law is not from God (5:7-12).
Finally, Paul shows the Galatians that Christian freedom is not a license to sin, as some might claim. Instead, it is the only way to overcome sin, to live in Christ’s love, and to experience the Spirit’s power (5:13–6:10). Freedom provides an opportunity to love rather than to sin (5:13-15), and the only way to overcome sin is to live by the power of the Holy Spirit (5:16-18). Living by human effort cannot overcome sin, because the sinful nature can produce only sinful actions (5:19-21). By contrast, living in the power of the Holy Spirit produces good fruit (5:22-23). Paul gives several examples of the Spirit’s leading in the lives of God’s children (5:24–6:10).
Paul ends his letter with a postscript in his own hand (6:11-18). He appeals again to the cross of Christ, reiterates his central message, bestows God’s mercy and peace on those who follow his teaching, reasserts his apostolic authority, and closes with a benediction that extends “the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ” to the recipients of his letter.
Author
Galatians has always been recognized as a genuine letter of Paul. It harmonizes well with the account of Paul’s mission in Acts and the other letters, and it authentically reflects Paul’s conflict with Jewish Christians who sought to make keeping the Jewish law a necessary element of Christian faith for Gentiles. Galatians has a message similar to that of Romans, but as an earlier letter, Galatians gives us a glimpse at the early stages of this intense, personal conflict. Here we feel the heartbeat of Paul’s care for the church.
Recipients
Some biblical scholars believe that Paul wrote to an ethnic group called “Galatians,” who lived in north central Asia Minor and were related to Gauls and Celts. Others believe that the recipients of Paul’s letter were groups of churches within the Roman province of Galatia, a much larger area than ethnic Galatia. The Roman province included in its southern districts a number of cities that Paul visited on his first missionary journey (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe).
Paul does not seem to have spent extended time in ethnic Galatia to the north (see possible references in Acts 16:6; 18:23), whereas we do have record of extensive and repeated missionary activity by Paul in the southern part of the Roman province of Galatia (Acts 13:13–14:25; 16:1-5). The available evidence suggests that the Galatians to whom Paul wrote this letter were most likely those whom Paul evangelized on his first missionary journey.
Date
Paul wrote Galatians either shortly before the council at Jerusalem (Acts 15:1-29) in AD 49 or 50, or sometime after the council, perhaps during his third missionary journey (AD 53–57).
Traditionally, scholars saw 2:1-10 as Paul’s description of the council at Jerusalem. However, close examination reveals serious differences between ch 2 and Acts 15:1-41. It is hard to reconcile Paul’s account of two visits to Jerusalem (2:1) with the fact that the council in Acts 15:1-41 was really his third visit. Neglecting to mention his second visit (Acts 11:30; 12:25) would seriously weaken Paul’s argument that he had minimal contact with the apostles in Jerusalem. Furthermore, if this letter were written after the council, it would be hard to imagine why Paul doesn’t mention the council’s decision, which directly addresses the issue in Galatians. After the council, in fact, Paul gladly carried news of its decision to the churches he visited (Acts 16:4). It is thus difficult to believe that Galatians 2:1-10 describes Acts 15:1-41 and that Galatians was written after the council at Jerusalem.
By contrast, there are relatively few difficulties in identifying the occasion described in Galatians 2:1-10 with Acts 11:30 and 12:25. This would suggest that Paul wrote Galatians shortly before the council, perhaps in AD 48 or 49, right at the time when the controversy over circumcision was escalating in the church (see Acts 15:1-2).
Meaning and Message
The problem that arose in Galatia was a familiar one in the first-century church, and it remains a problem in the church today. Are we truly saved by the work of Jesus Christ on the cross, or is something more necessary on our part?
Paul’s letter to the Galatians establishes the completeness of the Good News—that salvation is available to all purely by faith in the Lord Jesus Christ and not by observing the law. It also establishes the unity of God’s people: No division exists between Jews and Gentiles or between other classes of people. We all come to God and gain new life by the same means: through faith in Christ. Galatians establishes our liberty in Christ: We fulfill Christ’s law not by human effort but by living in faith and love by the Holy Spirit. Finally, the letter establishes our need for the grace of God, which rescues us from the curse of sin, gives us new life and the promised Holy Spirit, and makes us God’s children, empowered to fulfill Christ’s law of love.
Eph.1.1-6.24
Paul is taken up with the overwhelming goodness that God in Christ has showered on believers, and with his amazing plan to unite Gentiles with Jews in a new community—the church, the body of Christ. Here, Paul provides one of the finest descriptions of the Christian life in the entire New Testament. Though written from prison, this letter is full of joy, praise, and thanksgiving. It is a fitting reply to the wonder of God’s amazing grace in Christ, poured out in abundance on those chosen to know his love—Gentiles as well as Jews.
Setting
Paul’s third missionary journey (AD 53–57) centered on Ephesus, capital and port city of the Roman province of Asia on the western coast of what we now call Turkey. In Paul’s time, Ephesus was the fourth-largest city in the Roman empire, with a population of perhaps 500,000. Many people visited the city to see the famous temple of Artemis.
After an initial brief visit (see Acts 18:19-21), Paul returned to spend between two and three years in this large and flourishing city (see Acts 19:1–20:1). It was a difficult time for him: He encountered much opposition and suffered much abuse (see Acts 19:21-41; 1 Cor 15:32; 2 Cor 1:8-9; 11:23-27). But during this time, people all over the province heard the Good News of Christ for the first time, and many small groups of believers sprang up, meeting together in homes, in villages and towns across the province (the seven churches addressed in Revelation probably originated during this time). Some of these churches (at Colosse, for example) were begun by Paul’s converts and had no firsthand acquaintance with Paul.
It is not clear how accurate these churches’ understanding of the gospel was, but we know from Paul’s letter to the Colossians that some of them had encountered false teaching and distorted perceptions. In Ephesians, Paul is concerned with a perception that Gentile Christians were inferior to or distinct from Jewish Christians, and not fully part of God’s “new Israel.” What gave rise to this misunderstanding is not clear—discrimination by Jewish Christians? Gentile aversion to Jewish Christians?—but it reflects traditional ethnic tensions between Jews and Gentiles throughout the Roman world. Paul was also concerned with a lack of awareness that God’s people are to live in a distinctly different way from the surrounding world.
Paul writes a letter from prison that seems to be intended for several of these churches full of new converts. As their spiritual father, and as one commissioned by God to carry the Good News to the Gentiles, Paul was deeply concerned that these new believers have a correct understanding of all that God had given them in Christ and of the kind of life God wanted them to live in response.
Summary
With a heart full of praise for all that God has done, Paul beautifully summarizes the Good News of God’s saving grace in Jesus Christ—emphasizing that it is for Gentiles as well as for Jews (chs 1–3). He also gives practical instructions on how believers are to live in response, turning away from their former lives to become truly good and like Christ (chs 4–6).
Following a brief introduction (1:1-2), Paul praises God for the amazing grace that believers have received in Christ (1:3-14). In his sovereign love, God has chosen them, forgiven them, brought them into his family, made them his children, and promised them eternal blessings. In giving them his Spirit, he has marked them as his own so that they might praise his grace forever. Paul then prays that God will give them spiritual understanding to grasp the full depth of all that he has done for them (1:15-23). Though fully deserving of God’s wrath, they have been saved by God’s grace, not by anything they have done, but simply by being joined to Christ (2:1-10). As Gentiles, they were utterly alienated from God and his blessings, but in God’s mercy, through the reconciling work of Christ, they have now been made members of God’s family, fully equal to Jewish Christians. They are no longer outsiders (2:11-22).
Paul was the one commissioned by God to bring this wonderful Good News to them (3:1-13). His second prayer for them (3:14-21) is that God will give them spiritual power, strengthen them in their faith and love, enable them to understand Christ’s saving love fully, and fill them with the life and power of God himself.
In response, they are to live a life of humility, grace, and love—a life worthy of their calling, as they use their God-given gifts to build up the body of Christ (4:1-16). They are to turn from the darkness of their former sinful ways and live as children of light. Filled with kindness and love in the Holy Spirit, and following the example of Christ, their lives are to please God in all things (4:17–5:20).
All their relationships at home—between husbands and wives, parents and children, masters and slaves—are to be characterized by respect and love, as they live for Christ (5:21–6:9). Finally, they are warned to take on God’s armor to protect themselves from the devil (6:10-20). Paul closes with some personal words and a benediction (6:21-24).
Author
Ephesians is traditionally ascribed to Paul, as are the other Prison Letters (Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon). However, on the basis of vocabulary, style, form, setting, purpose, and theological emphases, some have thought that Ephesians was written instead by a later disciple of Paul. Others see it as an original letter from Paul that has been reworked by a later editor.
However, the letter is not at all incompatible with Paul’s thought and style. The supposed differences with the undisputed letters of Paul can be explained by taking account of (1) variations in Paul’s own vocabulary and style; (2) the different content of this letter (for example, Eph 1–3 include extensive sections of blessing, praise, and prayer); (3) developments in Paul’s own thinking; (4) Paul’s use of secretaries (see Rom 16:22), who may have exercised some degree of freedom in putting his thoughts into their own words; and (5) the nature of Ephesians as a general letter sent to several churches, not just one. There is no compelling reason to deny that Paul authored it.
Recipients
Though traditionally understood to have been written to the church at Ephesus, this letter may have been written as a general letter to be circulated to a number of different churches in the Roman province of Asia. This opinion is based on (1) the omission of the introductory words in Ephesus (Eph 1:1) in many of the earliest manuscripts, and (2) the lack of personal greetings or references in Ephesians—a surprising omission if the letter was intended for the church in Ephesus, given Paul’s extended stay in the city and personal acquaintance with the church there (see Acts 19:10; 20:31).
Date and Place of Writing
Ephesians is one of the Prison Letters (along with Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon), traditionally understood to have been written from Rome in AD 60–62 or shortly before Paul was executed around AD 64~65. This would place the Prison Letters among the last of Paul’s writings. However, they might better be understood as having been written from prison in Ephesus. In 2 Corinthians, written shortly after Paul left Ephesus, he refers to the strong opposition he encountered in the area and mentions having been in prison many times; see 2 Cor 11:23-27. If the Prison Letters were written from Ephesus, it would place them earlier in Paul’s life, around AD 53~56.
Meaning and Message
Praise for God’s Grace. Perhaps more than any other book in the New Testament, Ephesians is filled with gratitude for the saving grace God has shown to those who believe in Jesus Christ. Solely by God’s grace, believers have been chosen, forgiven, called into his family, made his children, promised his eternal blessings, and given the gift of his Holy Spirit to mark them as belonging to him forever (Eph 1:3-14). Salvation can never be viewed as something that is earned; it is a sheer gift (Eph 2:8-9). As a result, believers know they are called to praise God forever for his amazing grace (Eph 1:6, 12, 14). They can do nothing less, for they owe him everything.
The Condemned State of Human Beings. The awareness of grace that pervades the first three chapters of Ephesians is heightened by Paul’s contrasting emphasis on sin and God’s judgment upon it. What is true of his readers is true of everyone, since all stand under God’s judgment (see Eph 2:1-3, 12). Every human being stands guilty and condemned before the eternal judgment of God, who cannot tolerate sin. This concept seems troublingly harsh to modern ways of thinking; behind it stands a much stronger view of human sin and of the utter holiness of God than most Westerners today are used to. Apart from Christ, human beings are driven by sin and subject to the devil. Evangelism is therefore urgent (see Mark 16:15-16; cp. Rom 9:1-3; 10:1).
The Unity of the Church. God’s amazing plan is to include Gentiles in his family (see Eph 2:11–3:6). Ethnic distinctions mean nothing to God and they should mean nothing to God’s people (cp. Gal 3:28). Because God has joined people from all ethnic backgrounds together in his church (see Eph 2:14-17; 3:6), believers should respond by warmly welcoming one another in humility, grace, and love, without consideration of ethnic differences (see Eph 4:1-6; Rom 15:5-7). In the church, one’s identity is defined only by one’s faith in Christ.
Living Like Christ. In Eph 4–6, Paul gives us a beautiful picture of the Christian life as it ought to be lived. Believers are to turn away from the darkness of their former lives and, filled with the Holy Spirit, to live as new people of light, seeking only what is “good and right and true” (Eph 5:9). They are to express gentleness, integrity, respect, kindness, and love to others. In relation to God, their lives are to be filled with purity, praise, and thanksgiving (see Eph 4:17–5:20). Believers are to become like Christ and to reflect him in all they do and say (see Eph 4:13, 15; Rom 8:29). In Christ, they have been created anew to be like God (see Eph 4:24; 5:1-2).
Respect and Love at Home. In Eph 5:21–6:9, Paul emphasizes the importance of showing respect and love to those with whom one lives. He maintains and honors the traditional cultural relationships (including those between husbands and wives, parents and children, and masters and slaves), while stressing that, in all relationships, believers’ attitudes are to be those of Christ.
Spiritual War. Ephesians 6:10-20 gives the fullest New Testament account of how believers are to protect themselves in their war against the devil. In this spiritual battle, believers cannot rely on their own resources, but must use the weapons the Lord supplies. Significantly, all of the weapons described—except the short-bladed sword—are defensive weapons. There is no picture here of Christians attacking the devil. Though the devil’s opposition is to be taken seriously, Paul’s view of the Christian life does not center on spiritual warfare in an aggressive or offensive sense.
Phil.1.1-4.23
How do you live as a Christian in a non-Christian world? How do you respond when those around you are hostile to your faith? Paul wrote this poignant letter to encourage the persecuted Christians of the church in Philippi and to strengthen them in the difficulties they faced. Paul wrote while in prison—he, too, was suffering for his faith—but he demonstrated that a Christian can have joy in Christ regardless of the circumstances.
Setting
Philippi was a small Roman colony in the province of Macedonia in northeastern Greece. Located about ten miles inland from the Aegean Sea, Philippi was important because of its strategic position on the Via Egnatia, the major east–west Roman route through Macedonia.
Philippi heard the Good News of Christ from Paul on his second missionary journey (about AD 50; see Acts 16:11-40). From the beginning, there was opposition to Paul’s preaching. During his brief stay there, he was thrown into prison and then asked to leave town, but not before a group of new believers had been established (Acts 16:35-40).
Around six years later (AD 56~57), on his third missionary journey, Paul visited Philippi again (see Acts 20:1-6). It is possible that, after that visit, he never saw the Philippian Christians again (but see 1 Tim 1:3, written around AD 63).
Paul wrote the letter to the Philippians while in prison. Epaphroditus had brought a monetary gift to Paul from the Philippians and was returning to Philippi, and Paul sent along with him this warm letter of encouragement for the church. Aware that the Philippians were being persecuted, he wanted to support and strengthen them, in part by sharing with them his experience as a prisoner for Christ’s sake.
Summary
After a brief introduction (1:1-2), Paul affirms his gratitude to God for the Philippians and prays for their spiritual growth (1:3-11). He then talks about his own experience of imprisonment and how it has resulted in the spread of the Good News (1:12-19). Paul’s greatest desire is to live and die for Christ, whatever his situation (1:20-26). The Philippians, too, must be strong in their faith as they suffer for Christ (1:27-30). They should warmly support one another, remembering the example of Christ, who gave up everything in sacrificing his life for theirs (2:1-18).
Eager to know how the Philippians are doing and to tell them how he is, Paul will soon be sending Epaphroditus and Timothy to them, both of whom have proven their willingness to suffer for Christ (2:19-30).
Paul next warns the Philippians about Jewish-Christian propaganda requiring adherence to the law of Moses (3:1-3). He recounts his prior way of life, in which he was consumed with following the law. Now he has come to the realization that the only important thing is knowing Christ, sharing in his suffering and death, and experiencing his resurrection power both now and in the future (3:4-11). All believers are to be single-minded in pursuing full life in Christ (3:12–4:1).
In closing, Paul encourages the Philippians to fill their lives with joy, prayer, and thanksgiving, focusing their minds on God’s good gifts, even in their persecution (4:2-9). He thanks them for the gift they have sent. He tells them that he has learned to be content regardless of his circumstances, and he implies that they, too, should learn to live this way (4:1-20). As usual, Paul ends his letter with praise to God, greetings to the believers, and an invocation of the Lord’s grace (4:21-23).
Date and Place of Writing
Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon are often called the Prison Letters, as they each make reference to having been written from prison. There is no consensus on where or when the Prison Letters were written. They have traditionally been linked to Rome, where Paul was under house arrest in AD 60–62 and then later imprisoned around AD 64~65. More recently, scholars have made a case for Ephesus (AD 53~56). During Paul’s two- to three-year stay in that city, he experienced much opposition and suffering (see Acts 19:23-41; 2 Cor 11:23-28).
Literary Unity
In order to account for sudden changes of content and tone in the writing (see especially 3:2–4:3 and 4:10-20), some have suggested that Philippians is actually a combination of several different letters or fragments joined by an anonymous editor. An early Christian writer, Polycarp, spoke of “letters” of Paul to the Philippians. Many others, however, judge this to be a single coherent letter, written by Paul, who in his letters often changes the subject unexpectedly to address new issues.
Meaning and Message
Paul writes from prison to Christians who are experiencing opposition, encouraging them to imitate his life and attitudes. By speaking of his own courage, commitment, confidence, and contentment even in prison, Paul encourages the Philippians to respond similarly in their situation. In doing so, he shows us that a Christian life of joy, peace, contentment, prayer, thanksgiving, and devotion to Christ can transcend all circumstances.
Though Paul is in prison, he is not ashamed but rejoices that it has resulted in a greater spread of the Good News. He desires to be bold for Christ, whatever the consequences, for he knows he is called to live for Christ and he feels privileged to suffer for Christ (see 1:12-26). Even in prison, Paul can say that his deepest desire is to be completely filled with Christ’s life. Paul is ready to share in Christ’s suffering and death, and he is eager to experience the full power of Christ’s resurrection. Whatever happens, he will one day be raised from the dead like Christ (3:7-14). Meanwhile, Paul has learned to be content whatever his lot in life. He relies on Christ and has found Christ’s strength sufficient in even the most trying situations (4:11-13).
Paul urges the Philippians to be full of joy in the Lord as they experience opposition. They are not to worry about anything, but to pray for all their needs with a heart full of gratitude to God. In this way, they will experience the deep peace of God (see 4:4-9).
Col.1.1-4.18
The letter to the Colossians combines some of the deepest and most sublime teaching about Christ with some very basic instructions for life. As strongly as any other book in the New Testament, Colossians reminds us that Christ must always be preeminent in a Christian’s affections and worship.
Setting
The city of Colosse was located about 120 miles (193 kilometers) east of Ephesus, in the province of Asia (in modern-day Turkey).
Paul mentions Epaphras as the one who first brought the Good News to the Colossians (1:7). Epaphras was probably converted during Paul’s three-year ministry in Ephesus. Ephesus was the commercial and governmental center for the whole province, which included Colosse. Luke tells us that during Paul’s time in Ephesus, “people throughout the province of Asia . . . heard the word of the Lord” (Acts 19:10). While Paul had not visited Colosse (Col 2:1), he was the spiritual “father” of Epaphras and thus the spiritual “grandfather” of their church. So he wrote with both apostolic authority and personal caring.
When Colossians was written, Epaphras was visiting Paul in prison (4:12). He had told Paul about some of the difficulties the young church was going through. He was especially concerned about some false teachers in Colosse who were emphasizing the importance of “spiritual rulers and authorities” (2:15) and “spiritual powers of this world” (2:8, 20), and thus were detracting from Christ’s preeminence. Paul wrote to address these issues.
Summary
Colossians divides into two parts, with chs 1–2 focused on theology and chs 3–4 on practical matters.
Paul’s greetings (1:1-2) are followed by a thanksgiving section (1:3-14), a typical way of opening a New Testament letter. Then, to make his key theological point, Paul quotes and adapts a hymn about the supremacy of Christ (1:15-20), then makes a practical application (1:21-23) before discussing his own ministry as apostle to the Gentiles (1:24–2:5). He then returns to his main point, urging the Colossians to maintain their allegiance to Christ Jesus, the one who provides for their spiritual life (2:6-15). The theological part of the letter concludes with a warning not to become preoccupied with rules as a means to spiritual fulfillment (2:16-23).
The more practical part of the letter (chs 3–4) opens with a general call to turn from sin and embrace the new life in Christ (3:1-11). Paul follows this with instructions for the Christian community (3:12-17) and family life (3:18–4:1). The letter concludes with an exhortation to prayer (4:2-6) and remarks about coworkers and other Christians (4:7-18).
Date and Occasion of Writing
Colossians, Ephesians, Philemon, and Philippians are referred to as the Prison Letters—all four were written while Paul was in jail for preaching about Jesus Christ (see 4:18). Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon are closely related, having probably been written from the same place at about the same time (either Rome or Ephesus—see Ephesians Book Introduction, “Date and Place of Writing”). These three letters share common themes and vocabulary and were written to people in the same part of the world: Colosse was only about 120 miles east of Ephesus in the Roman province of Asia, and Philemon was a resident of Colosse.
Paul mentioned some of the same coworkers in each of the Prison Letters. In his letter to Philemon, he explained why he was sending Onesimus, Philemon’s runaway slave, back to him. Onesimus also traveled with the letter to the Colossians (4:9). In both Colossians (4:7) and Ephesians (Eph 6:21), Paul said that Tychicus would give the churches more detailed information about Paul’s situation. So Tychicus was probably the messenger who carried these three letters to their destinations in Asia Minor.
The False Teaching
Paul wrote to the Colossians because false teachers were disturbing the church. Colosse was an important commercial center on one of the main Roman roads in the region, so the city would have been exposed to ideas from many religions and philosophies. Like many false teachings, the “Colossian heresy” was probably a mixture of various attitudes and ideas that were in the air at the time. We cannot identify these false teachers or the details of their particular teaching, but we can see some characteristics: (1) The false teachers were apparently insisting on the observance of Sabbath and new moon festivals (2:16), which suggests some Jewish input in their viewpoint; (2) they were preoccupied with following various rules, particularly pertaining to the body (asceticism); and (3) they placed emphasis on spiritual beings, which was typical of many religious movements of the period. The basic problem is clear: The teaching did not regard Christ as the center and origin of all religious experience. Any teaching or philosophy that fails to do so is not the Good News.
Meaning and Message
In his letter to the Colossians, Paul steers a young Christian church back to the apostles’ message of the Good News about Christ. To counter the influence of false teaching, Paul insisted that Christ is supreme over all beings in creation, both spiritual and physical. Jesus is the one in whom the very fullness of God resides. Jesus is also the only ultimate source of spiritual growth, the center from which all true spiritual experience must radiate (2:19). The false teachers were deriving their emphasis on rules from something other than Christ, and this meant that the rules could not produce spiritual benefit (2:23). In this case, Paul argues, addition means subtraction: Trying to add anything to Christ leads to subtracting the power that he alone gives to lead the Christian life.
Christ has reconciled us to the God in whom we now live, so all of our spiritual needs are fulfilled by Christ. We need no one and nothing else for true spiritual fulfillment.
Paul urged the Colossians to avoid putting too much stock in ritual practices (2:16-23). Instead, all Christians should identify with Christ in his death and resurrection (2:11, 19-20; 3:1-4) and let the Good News, as preached by the apostles, mold their thinking and behavior. Colossians reminds us that we must keep Christ at the center of all that we do, in our own spiritual journey and in the life of the church. Adding to Christ is inevitably a distortion of true Christian faith.
1Thes.1.1-5.28
As recent converts to Christianity, the Thessalonian church lacked a full understanding of the faith and suffered severe persecution. Could the fledgling believers withstand the antagonistic social climate? First Thessalonians reminds us that faithful leaders, good teaching, and obedience help believers remain firm in their faith. The letter presents a clear vision of God as powerfully active in the lives of those he has called through the Good News of Jesus Christ.
Setting
Thessalonica, a major city of Macedonia, enjoyed the good will of Rome and the Roman citizens who settled there. The city was not subject to Roman taxation, could mint its own coins, and was not obliged to garrison Roman troops within the city walls. It prospered as a political and commercial center whose influence extended throughout the province of Macedonia and beyond.
The mixed population of Thessalonica included Macedonians, Romans, Jews, and other peoples who traveled through the city. Many of the Romans who settled there became wealthy benefactors in the town. The Jewish population was large enough to have a synagogue (Acts 17:1).
Luke reported the evangelization of Thessalonica in Acts 17:1-9. When Paul preached in the synagogue, some Jews converted to Christ. Most of the converts in Thessalonica, however, were Gentiles who abandoned idolatry to follow Christ (1 Thes 1:9).
The Jews who did not accept the Good News started a riot against the apostles and accused Paul and Silas of causing civil disturbance (Acts 17:4-7). The accusation was calculated to generate maximum opposition by taking advantage of the Romans’ intolerance of social unrest. As a consequence, Paul and his companions were forced to leave the city after a short time.
Paul left a church that was very young in the faith, and it was already experiencing persecution (1 Thes 1:6; 2:14; 3:3-4). The Christians in Thessalonica had not received all the teaching they needed, nor did they have mature leadership to oversee the church. As Paul traveled on to Berea, Athens, and finally Corinth (Acts 17:10–18:1), he was deeply concerned about the welfare of the Thessalonian church. His repeated attempts to return to the city were blocked by severe circumstances that he attributed to Satan (1 Thes 2:17-18).
While in Athens, Paul could no longer bear his anxiety over the church. He sent Timothy back to Thessalonica to strengthen the believers and to be sure that they had not abandoned their faith (3:1-2, 5). While Paul was in Corinth, Timothy returned from Thessalonica with the good news that the Thessalonian believers had continued in faith and love and were standing firm despite the opposition they faced (3:6-8). First Thessalonians explodes with the joy Paul experienced upon hearing this report. It expresses his thankfulness to God for their faithfulness and his prayer that he might return to see them again and establish them more fully in the faith (3:9-11).
Summary
First Thessalonians is a letter full of thanksgiving to God for the faith, love, and hope of the young Thessalonian church (1:2-3; 2:13; 3:9). Paul, however, also presents some of his concerns. In the ancient world there were many traveling orators who only sought money and fame. In 2:1–3:13, Paul defends his motives and ministry—he had not come looking for fame or fortune. He sincerely cared for the Thessalonian believers. He longed to see the church and had tried unsuccessfully to “come back” (2:17-20). Paul also affirms his care by reminding them that he had sent Timothy back to strengthen them and to find out about their welfare (3:1-5). Paul recounts how greatly comforted he was by the report Timothy brought (3:6-8), and he tells the church about his thanksgiving to God for them and his prayer that he might see them again (3:9-13).
Some in the congregation had ignored Paul’s teaching about sexual morality. In response, Paul emphasizes God’s will for them to be holy (4:1-8). In addition, certain individuals within the church were refusing to work, ignoring the teaching and example of the apostles in this regard (4:11-12; 5:14; see 2 Thes 3:6-15).
The Thessalonians also had some questions for Paul. First, what happens to believers who die before Christ’s return? Paul answers that such people will be the first to be raised from the dead and will be caught up with the living to meet the Lord at the time of his appearing (1 Thes 4:13-18). Second, when will Christ return and bring about the final consummation? Paul replies that the day will come at an unexpected moment, like a thief in the night (5:1-11), so they should be prepared by living in faith, love, and hope.
The letter closes with several exhortations on living a life that pleases God. Paul reminds the church to honor its emerging leaders (5:12-13). In addition, Paul instructs the Thessalonians that they should not reject prophecies but evaluate them (5:19-22). The letter concludes with a blessing that expresses Paul’s absolute confidence in God’s faithfulness and work in their lives (5:23-24).
Author
The names of Silas and Timothy, cofounders of the church in Thessalonica, are listed in (1:1) alongside the name of Paul. The letter is mostly written in the first person plural (“we”), indicating that Silas and Timothy might have had a real part in the letter’s composition. Paul only occasionally steps out individually to express his particular concerns (2:18; 3:5; 5:27). Joint composition of letters was known in the ancient world. For example, in his letter Ad Atticum, Cicero refers to “letters—both that which you wrote in conjunction with others and the one you wrote in your own name.” However, the final command in 5:27 suggests that Paul had the major hand in writing, whatever the role of his companions may have been.
Date and Occasion of Writing
Paul wrote this epistle from Corinth during his second missionary journey (Acts 15:36–18:22) after Timothy returned from visiting the Thessalonian church (1 Thes 3:6; Acts 18:5). Gallio was named as proconsul of the Roman province of Achaia in AD 51, during Paul’s stay in Corinth (Acts 18:11-12). Therefore, Paul probably wrote this letter during the latter part of AD 50. First Thessalonians is one of Paul’s earliest epistles, second only to Galatians.
Meaning and Message
First Thessalonians provides a look into the life and struggles of a new congregation of believers. These new converts were greatly disadvantaged because the founders of their church were only present for a short time. The new believers were experiencing great hostility from their own countrymen because of their faith (1:6; 2:14; 3:3-4). Paul believed they were under attack by Satan, the tempter (3:5), who had also hindered him from visiting them again (2:18). When Timothy returned from visiting them, Paul was overjoyed to discover that the Thessalonians were exhibiting the character of people truly converted to Christ. Their lives were marked by faith, love, and hope (1:3; 3:6; 5:8). They even helped to spread the Good News throughout the surrounding regions (1:8) and became examples for other believers of true faith in the midst of suffering (1:6-7).
What enabled the Thessalonians to stand firm in faith in the face of great adversity? Some might attribute such perseverance to simple resolve, good upbringing, or just “blind faith.” But Paul emphasizes that believers are chosen by God (1:4) and that the Good News is the divine message and witness of God’s power (1:5). When people receive this message, it continues to work powerfully in them (2:13). Genuine conversion means turning to the true God in repentance and serving him while awaiting the return of his Son from heaven (1:9-10). Although the Christians in Thessalonica were young in the faith, separated from their church founders, and suffering for their conversion to Christ, God was at work in them. Such strength of faith is the work of Christ (3:8, 13).
Still, these new Christians needed to grow in moral character and theological understanding. Paul had warned the Thessalonians about sexual immorality, but some dismissed his teaching (4:3-8). They also did not understand that their belief in Christ’s resurrection was their source of hope in the face of the bitter reality of death (4:13-18). They were confused about when Christ would return (5:1-11). Some in the church did not heed Paul’s teaching about work (4:11; 5:14), and others were not properly respecting the emerging leaders in the church (5:12-13). Finally, some Thessalonians were repressing prophecy in the church (5:19-22).
Although correction may seem distasteful, we need it for proper moral and theological growth. Paul, as a wise pastor, writes this letter to help the Thessalonian believers with these issues. His hope is that the letter will address these problems until he is able to return (3:10). In the end, every leader should entrust believers to God’s work in their lives (5:23) since he is faithful (5:24).
2Thes.1.1-3.18
The believers in Thessalonica had faced persecution since their conversion, but now it was more severe. A false teaching declared that the day of the Lord had already come, and some believers even quit working. What do you say to people whose lives move from bad to worse? Paul’s second letter to this new church addresses their troubling problems.
Setting
From the time of their conversion, the Thessalonian Christians had experienced hostility (1 Thes 1:6; 2:14), and Paul had worried whether they would retain their faith (1 Thes 3:5). When Paul wrote 1 Thessalonians, they had stood firm in faith, love, and hope (1 Thes 1:3; 3:6-8).
After Paul sent his first letter, the situation in the Thessalonian church deteriorated and the persecution intensified. What Paul had previously written was being countered by a false teaching that said that the day of the Lord had already come (2:2). Paul wrote 2 Thessalonians after receiving this news (2:2; 3:11) in order to give this church a shift in perspective.
Summary
Second Thessalonians opens with the customary greeting (1:1-2), then quickly moves to thanksgiving for the church’s faith, love, and persevering hope, which had become a model for other congregations (1:3-4). Noting their suffering, Paul says that God will judge their persecutors and bring reward to the Thessalonian believers (1:5-10). Paul gives thanks for this church and prays that God will continue to make them worthy of his calling (1:11-12). In spite of their troubles, Paul is confident in God’s work among them.
Paul counters the false teaching that “the day of the Lord has already begun” (2:1-2) and urges the church not to be deceived by this doctrine (2:3). He outlines events that will precede Christ’s coming, when the church will be gathered to meet him (2:1-12). First, there will be rebellion against God (2:3). Then “the man of lawlessness” will come, who will claim to be divine and demand worship (2:3-4). Although he will be empowered by Satan and will deceive many, Jesus will destroy him (2:8-12).
Paul is confident that God chose and called the Thessalonian Christians, and he urges them to stand firm (2:13-15). Paul concludes his discussion on final events with a prayer for the church (2:16-17) and a request that they pray for him as he preaches the Good News (3:1-2). His confidence in the church is based on God’s handiwork in them (3:3-5).
In the closing section (3:6-18), Paul returns to an issue that he had addressed in the first letter. Some believers were refusing to work, despite Paul’s instruction and example, so Paul calls on the church to discipline them (3:6-10). He also addresses these idle members directly, telling them to get to work (3:11-12). He commands the church to treat these slackers as errant Christians rather than hostile enemies (3:14-15), and he encourages the church to continue its generosity toward those in genuine need (3:13). He closes the letter with prayers and a final greeting (3:16-18).
Authorship
Paul’s name is in the letter opening (1:1); at the conclusion, Paul adds a note in his own hand to certify the letter’s authenticity (3:17). As in 1 Thessalonians, the names of Silas and Timothy, the cofounders of this church, are included alongside Paul’s, indicating that they stood behind the contents of the letter and probably shared in its writing. Most of the first-person pronouns in the letter are plural (“we”), suggesting that Silas and Timothy had real input into the letter and that their names were not included simply as a courtesy. However, the final greeting in Paul’s own writing emphasizes that he is the primary author, personally responsible for the contents of the letter.
The early church unanimously affirmed that 2 Thessalonians was a genuine letter of the apostle Paul, and the letter is in harmony with Paul’s other writings.
Recipients
The recipients of the letter were the same as those who received 1 Thessalonians: “the church in Thessalonica, . . . you who belong to God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ” (2 Thes 1:1). Many were artisans who earned their living by manual labor (3:6-12) or were clients of rich patrons. They were not people who had great wealth.
Meaning and Message
Wars are often fought on multiple fronts. This was certainly the case with the conflict in the church at Thessalonica. With persecutors assailing the church, false doctrine circulating, and unruly members refusing to work, the battle lines were numerous. In his response, however, Paul never embraces despair or exasperation. He is very clear in his teaching and correction. He intends for his words to strengthen the troubled church, stop the false teaching, and correct the errant members.
The value of Paul’s second letter to the Thessalonians is not merely in figuring out how events will occur at the end of human history, but that has often been the approach to the second chapter of this letter. Second Thessalonians is primarily a pastoral letter from Paul that provides hope and confidence in God when the world has gone mad. Christ reigns now, and Christ will be triumphant in the end.
1Tim.1.1-6.21
During the final phase of Paul’s apostolic career, a serious disruption was troubling the long-established Christian church in Ephesus: Some church leaders had become false teachers. Paul had warned that this would happen (Acts 20:29-31), and now their impact was threatening the life and well-being of the community. A skillful person was needed to restore order to God’s household. Paul gave this task to Timothy, his trusted delegate.
Setting
Paul’s first contact with Ephesus, during his second missionary journey (Acts 18:19-21), gave no opportunity for significant work. During his third journey, Paul served in Ephesus for three years (around AD 53~56, Acts 19). Later, when Paul was on his way to Jerusalem, he had opportunity to stop at Miletus and speak to the elders from Ephesus, who met him there (Acts 20:17-38). Paul traveled to Jerusalem, was arrested, was later transferred to Caesarea, and was then sent to Rome, where he stayed under house arrest for approximately two years (AD 60–62, Acts 21–28). When he was released from prison, he reembarked on his mission, possibly directed toward Spain (see Rom 15:24, 28), although it is just as possible that the imprisonment changed Paul’s orientation back eastward. Paul was still involved with the Ephesian church during this period.
Timothy, who had accompanied Paul for much of his original ministry there (Acts 19:22), had now been delegated the task of dealing with new and troubling developments in Ephesus (1 Tim 1:3). False teachers had emerged (1:3) and were evidently upsetting households (see 1 Tim 2:15; 3:4-5; 5:11-15; cp. Titus 1:11). Paul wrote Timothy to guide him in correcting errant behavior and in preventing false teachers from gaining another foothold.
Summary
After directing Timothy to deal with the false teachers, who espoused to be teachers of the law (1:3-20), Paul gives guidance on conduct in God’s household with respect to prayer, women’s teaching, and leadership (2:1–3:13). These three areas had been harmed by the false teachers. Paul makes clear what he is trying to accomplish and explains why and how it must be done (3:14–4:16). Then he resumes his instructions on godly conduct, focusing on old and young people, widows, elders, and masters (5:1–6:2). Relationships in these areas had also been distorted by false teaching. Finally, Paul returns to the need to deal with the false teachers themselves, this time centering on issues of wealth and profit (6:2-21).
Authorship
There is a widespread view that the Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) were not written by Paul. According to this view, a follower of Paul wrote the Pastoral Letters after his death and signed his name. There are several good reasons, however, to believe that Paul is the author: (1) Until the 1800s, there was no hesitation in ascribing these letters to Paul. This includes early church fathers whose native language was Greek and who were very familiar with Paul’s other letters. (2) The early church would never have accepted these letters had they suspected the letters of being falsely signed in Paul’s name. (3) While Paul’s style in these letters is different from elsewhere, this might simply be a result of the specific situations Paul was addressing and the distinctive period of Paul’s life and career during which these letters were written. It also might result from the use of a different amanuensis (scribe) for these letters. It is reasonable to affirm Paul’s authorship of the Pastoral Letters.
Date of Writing
The Pastoral Letters (1 Timothy—Titus) were most likely written after Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (AD 60–62, Acts 28:1-31) and before his death in AD 64~65 under the persecution of Nero.
In 2 Timothy, Paul is jailed in Rome at the end of his life (see 2 Tim 4:6). This would seem to place the letters of 1 Timothy and Titus—written while Paul was still moving freely—in the time leading up to his arrest. How do these details fit with Acts?
One possibility is that 2 Timothy was written during the Roman imprisonment of Acts 28. In this case, all three letters would fit into Luke’s historical account in the book of Acts, and Paul would have been executed at the end of that imprisonment (AD 62).
There are early reports, however, that Paul was released from this Roman imprisonment (e.g., 1 Clement 5:6-7, AD 95~97; see also Eusebius, Church History 2.22, AD 325). If this is the case, he likely engaged in further work, possibly went to Spain, and was then rearrested and executed in Rome during Nero’s persecution of Christians (around AD 64~65). The letters to Timothy and Titus were likely written during this later period.
In support of this approach, there is no reason that these letters must be fitted into the history recorded in Acts. Also, the activities of Paul and his delegates in 1 Timothy and Titus do not correspond to the details in Acts, nor does the imprisonment of 2 Timothy sound like the imprisonment of Acts 28. Finally, the distinctive style and content of these letters is less puzzling if they were written at a different time from Paul’s other letters.
The False Teachers
The false teachers discussed in 1 Timothy bear much resemblance to similar figures whom Paul mentions in both 2 Timothy and Titus. It is very difficult to draw a clear picture of these false teachers, but there are clues. Their teaching had ascetic elements (see 1 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:15) and a Jewish focus (see 1 Tim 1:7; Titus 1:10, 14; 3:9). They claimed special knowledge (1 Tim 6:20; Titus 1:16), asserted that the resurrection of believers had already taken place (2 Tim 2:18), disrupted relationships (2 Tim 3:6-7; Titus 1:11), and might have emphasized salvation by works (2 Tim 1:9; Titus 3:5). Paul’s strong response suggests a need to make corrections regarding the doctrine of Christ (see 1 Tim 2:5-6; 3:16; 2 Tim 2:8) and the last days (see 1 Tim 4:1-5; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:1-9; Titus 2:11-14). The false teachers opposed Paul’s message, promoted immorality, and undercut the church’s mission. Thus, good leaders were needed (see Titus 1:10-13; 2:6-8, 15).
Meaning and Message
First Timothy is passionate and masterful advocacy for the Good News of Jesus Christ, its ongoing progress in the world, and the new life which it creates and promotes (see 3:14-16).
God’s household was Paul’s immediate concern. Just as the surrounding society expected orderly conduct in the family household—with roles and decorum and notions of honor and shame—so it was with the household of God. God’s household reflects widely accepted standards of honor and propriety as well as the social structures of society. At the same time, where proper and necessary, God’s household runs counter to society, reflecting very different and even countercultural values and practices. God’s household is in the world, but not of it. The world remains God’s good creation (4:3-4; 6:17), but it is transient and is in its last, difficult, evil-ridden days (4:1; 2 Tim 3:1). God’s household reflects the new creation even as it exists in the world.
The mission of God’s household is to advance the Good News in the world and promote the will of God (see 1 Tim 2:4-7). God’s people should do what supports that mission (2:1–3:13; 5:1–6:2; see 1 Cor 9:19-23). The false teachers were, by contrast, talking foolishness and damaging the integrity of the church, so Paul directed most of his words toward right conduct. The condensed summaries of the Good News (1 Tim 1:15; 2:5-6; 3:16; 6:13-16) indicate what was actually under assault—the right understanding of salvation in the present age. This is what must be preserved, skillfully taught, and passed along—with godly life as its outcome.
2Tim.1.1-4.22
Back in a Roman prison, Paul realized that he had reached the end of his race. His life, modeled on the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, was nearing its conclusion, so Paul commissioned his delegate Timothy to carry on his work. When Paul died at the hands of the Romans, this letter essentially became his epitaph (see 4:7-8), and through it, he empowered the church to carry on in his absence. The mission of the Good News would continue.
Setting
Following Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:1-19), his work as an apostle extended from Jerusalem in the east to as far west as Italy (Acts 28:30-31; Rom 15:19), including considerable time in Asia Minor, and especially Ephesus (Acts 19:1–20:1; 20:31). This period ended when Paul was arrested in Jerusalem (Acts 21:27-36), detained in Caesarea (Acts 23:23–26:32), and imprisoned in Rome (Acts 28:16-31). Paul was eventually released, and he engaged in further ministry. He wrote 1 Timothy and Titus during this time. He was then arrested and imprisoned in Rome a second time (1:8, 16-17; 2:9).
This letter, written from prison in Rome, came during the concluding episode of Paul’s life (see 4:6-18). It was written to Timothy, Paul’s faithful coworker and delegate. Timothy was in the province of Asia at that time, probably in Ephesus (4:13, 19). Paul was asking him to come to Rome as soon as possible. Suffering and persecution were likely for Timothy, too, if he came.
Summary
After the traditional salutation (1:1-2), thanksgiving, and prayer (1:3-4), Paul charges Timothy to suffer with him for the Good News (1:5-18). The resources for doing so include Timothy’s spiritual heritage and the Good News itself, as illustrated by Paul’s life and by both good and bad examples.
Paul then charges Timothy again (2:1-13) to be strong and to endure suffering along with him. Again, Timothy’s obedience is to be motivated by reflection on the Good News and on Paul’s example. Paul then instructs Timothy on conducting his ministry among the false teachers (2:14-26).
The perspective then broadens to set Timothy’s task in the context of the last days (3:1–4:8). These days will be difficult, but God will deal with troublemakers just as he has in the past. Timothy is to stay on track with the faith he has inherited and remain rooted in the Scriptures. He is to carry out his ministry with a sense of urgency in light of his hope and the increasing resistance of his listeners. He is not to be afraid of suffering for the Lord, and he is to consider Paul’s work as completed. Timothy must step into the gap and continue to follow the example of Paul.
The letter closes with an appeal for Timothy to come to Rome as soon as possible (4:9-18). Paul gives greetings, news, and a final urging for Timothy to make his journey to Rome before winter (4:19-21). Then Paul closes with a blessing (4:22).
Date of Writing
It is possible that 2 Timothy was written during Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (Acts 28:1-31). The evidence, however, gives stronger support to a later date, during a second imprisonment in Rome that resulted in Paul’s death (see 1 Timothy Book Introduction, “Date of Writing”).
Occasion of Writing
We do not know the details of Paul’s second arrest. Perhaps Alexander (4:14-15), a heretic whom Paul had disciplined earlier (1 Tim 1:20), had a hand in the arrest (see 2 Tim 4:16-18). It might have occurred in Asia Minor (see 1:15); if so, Paul’s heretical opponents—the false teachers discussed in 1 Timothy and Titus—were not just making idle threats. The struggle in which Paul and Timothy were engaged (2 Tim 2:3; 4:7; see also 1 Tim 1:18; 6:12) was not simply metaphorical or spiritual. The directions on prayer for civil authorities (1 Tim 2:1-7; cp. Titus 3:1) may be understood as relating to wider problems created for the churches by false teachers, problems that resulted in Paul’s final arrest and execution for the Good News. The false teachers were still on the prowl (2 Tim 2:14–3:9; 4:14-15). Paul viewed his ministry as being completed and knew that his death was imminent (4:6-8), so he was encouraging Timothy to carry on the work. It is possible that a visit to Paul in Rome would have included some sort of formal commissioning of Timothy.
Meaning and Message
The apostle Paul had not only proclaimed the Good News of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ; he had personally enacted it. The Good News gives rise to a way of life that takes up the cross and follows Jesus in the life-giving power of his resurrection. Paul had modeled his life after Christ’s, and now his death was at hand. God’s work will be completed right up to the day of Christ’s return (1:12), and the continuing responsibility of God’s servants is great. Paul passed the torch to Timothy and challenged him to carry his work forward.
As with Timothy, all who take up the cross and follow Jesus are charged to complete the ministry that God has given them, through the life-giving power of Christ’s resurrection.
Titus.1.1-3.15
The church in Crete was full of new converts in a culture where conduct was very crude. Paul, the aged missionary, demonstrates a mature finesse in applying the Good News to the spiritual condition and circumstances of these believers in Crete as the church was beginning to grow.
Setting
A group from Crete had been in Jerusalem during Pentecost at the birth of the Christian church (Acts 2:11). Some of these might have carried the Christian faith back to the island at that time, but this letter to Titus suggests that the church on Crete had been recently founded as a result of Paul’s mission (see Titus 1:5). The only other mention of Crete in the New Testament comes during Paul’s transfer to Rome as a prisoner (Acts 27:7-21). Paul did not have an opportunity to do active ministry in Crete at that time. Most likely, Paul’s work in Crete began after the events of Acts 28:1-31 (AD 60–62) and before his final Roman imprisonment (probably around AD 64~65).
As during his first missionary journey out of Antioch, Paul had begun the church in Crete without appointing leaders. As with those earliest churches, he now wanted leaders to be established (cp. Acts 14:23), although in this case he delegated the responsibility to Titus, a longtime coworker. Paul was headed for Nicopolis (on the west coast of modern Greece), and he wanted Titus to join him there when Artemas or Tychicus had arrived on the island of Crete (Titus 3:12). Paul’s plan to winter at Nicopolis suggests that he planned to sail westward from there when spring arrived (see 2 Tim 4:21), probably heading for Italy and possibly Spain (see Rom 15:24, 28).
On Crete, the degenerate culture was negatively influencing the believers in the young church. False teachers were also troubling the community, seemingly like those mentioned in 1 and 2 Timothy. As Paul’s delegate to Crete, Titus had to set this church in order before the arrival of Artemas or Tychicus. Above all, he needed to assign elders in each city. When this was completed, he would depart and join Paul.
Summary
The letter to Titus is all business, setting the tone for Titus himself to follow. Each section of the letter body (1:5–3:11) is composed in a pattern of command, rationale, and charge. Paul consistently repeats this pattern—whether addressing the appointment of elders (1:5-16), right conduct among members of the household of faith (2:1-15), or right conduct in society at large (3:1-11). The rationale for Paul’s commands in the first section, on leadership, is that the community is threatened by false teachers and needs decisive leadership. In the next two sections, on right conduct, the commands are based on God’s grace and mercy.
Date of Writing
Titus was written at about the same time as 1 Timothy. It is possible that Paul wrote these letters and 2 Timothy during the period prior to his arrest in Acts 21, but a date sometime after the imprisonment of Acts 28 is more likely (see 1 Timothy Book Introduction, “Date of Writing”).
Situation on Crete
According to Cretan mythology, the god Zeus was once a mere human who lived and died on Crete but who had achieved godhood through the benefits he gave to humans (see study note on 1:12). The idea of a great human benefactor being exalted to the status of a god by virtue of good deeds contradicts the Good News. God graciously lowered himself to humanity in Jesus Christ—“our great God and Savior” (2:13)—and offers salvation through pure mercy (3:5).
Comparison with 1 and 2 Timothy
Although Crete is some distance from the church in Ephesus (the recipients of 1 & 2 Timothy), there are some intriguing parallels between the two situations. The characterization of the false teachers and their teaching (Titus 1:10-16) suggests that quite similar teachings were being confronted in both places (see 1 Tim 1:4-7; 4:1-4; 2 Tim 3:1-7; 4:3-4).
That said, the situation on Crete as addressed in Titus is not identical to that of Ephesus in 1 & 2 Timothy. Evidently, the church in Crete was new, whereas the church in Ephesus was long established. Crete was socially less civilized than Ephesus. The newness of the church in Crete might explain the absence of a widows list (1 Tim 5:3-16) and deacons (1 Tim 3:8-13). The differences in the troublemakers might account for the silence on the subject of women teachers (see 1 Tim 2:11-15). The criteria for leaders (Titus 1:6-9), as well as the standards of conduct for members of the community (see 2:1-10), might represent a lowering of the bar to accommodate new converts from an uncouth background. Finally, the stress on guarding the deposit, so important in Timothy (1 Tim 1:18; 6:20; 2 Tim 1:12-14; 2:2), is absent in Titus.
Meaning and Message
Central to this letter is the realization that the Christian community should enact God’s saving grace, which has been shown to the world in the person and work of Jesus Christ. The community’s behavior among its members, and in relation to those outside, should be consistent with the way that God had dealt with them. Christians must embody God’s grace in the world and toward the world. In so doing, they will advance the Good News within their territory and culture (2:10-11; 3:2-3, 8; see Matt 5:14-16).
The drama of the divine salvation of humanity invites participation. As Christ’s followers, we must become players in this performance of grace. Our communities should promote godly lives because the appearance of grace, in the person of Christ, has taught us how to live and has made such living possible (Titus 2:1-15). As individual believers, we must also conduct ourselves properly in a fallen world, with hearts bent on the salvation of others. We must bear in mind our former lives—remembering how God has dealt with us, has given us salvation, and has provided for our godliness (3:1-11).
Phlm.1.1-25
This brief letter, the shortest and most personal of Paul’s letters, shows how attitudes and relationships are transformed by Christ. It was written on behalf of Onesimus, a runaway slave, who was returning to Philemon, his master. Paul encouraged Philemon to go beyond the traditional master–slave relationship by welcoming Onesimus back as a beloved brother in Christ. With these words of reconciliation, Paul reminds us that all relationships among Christians, regardless of a person’s social standing, are transformed by the love of Christ.
Setting
A slave named Onesimus seems to have run away from his Christian master, Philemon. Philemon resided in Colosse, a small town in the Roman province of Asia (now western Turkey) about 120 miles (193 kilometers) east of Ephesus. When Onesimus ran away, he might have stolen some of his master’s things. Somehow Onesimus came into contact with Paul, who was in prison, and became a believer through Paul’s ministry. When Paul became aware that Onesimus was a runaway slave, he encouraged him to return to his master.
Slavery was widespread in the Roman world and, by law, captured runaways had to be returned to their owners. They often faced severe punishment, such as whipping, branding, or execution, as an example to other slaves. However, Philemon was a well-respected Christian leader and a gracious, loving person. Paul wrote this letter to Philemon from prison and sent it with Onesimus to ensure a warm Christian welcome for the runaway on what might have been a rather fearful return to his master. The letter resembles a letter of recommendation and carries the full weight of Paul’s apostolic authority.
We do not know what happened when Onesimus returned. Some fifty or sixty years later, however, in a letter written to the Christians at Ephesus by the Christian martyr Ignatius, the name Onesimus appears again, this time as the name of the highly-regarded bishop of the province of Asia. We cannot be sure it was the same person, but it is quite possible that, because of his close association with Paul, the young slave rose to prominence in the church and eventually became bishop of the entire province. Paul’s letter is a reminder that traditional class distinctions are of no significance in the church of Jesus Christ.
Summary
Paul encourages Philemon to treat Onesimus no longer simply as a slave but as a genuine brother in Christ. Using his traditional opening (1:1-3), Paul introduces himself, greets Philemon, his family, and the church that meets in their home, and invokes grace and peace upon them. Paul then thanks God for Philemon, especially for his trust in the Lord Jesus and the love he has shown to so many of God’s people (1:4-7).
Paul then makes his appeal for Onesimus (1:8-22). Though formerly a runaway, Onesimus has now become a believer in Christ and has proven himself to be a changed person. Paul asks Philemon to be gracious and forgiving in welcoming his slave back. Paul’s real desire is for Onesimus to stay with him, to assist him in his ministry from prison. Although he has the apostolic authority to demand that Philemon release him for that purpose, he refuses to use that authority, desiring that such an expression of mercy come from Philemon himself and not be forced. But Paul clearly hints that Philemon should consider freeing his slave for the work of the Good News.
The letter ends in a customary way (1:23-25). Paul sends greetings to Philemon from various Christians, then invokes the grace of Christ upon him and all those in his home.
Occasion of Writing
Though the traditional interpretation is that Onesimus was a runaway slave, other possibilities have been posed. For example, Onesimus might have been sent as a messenger to Paul, or he might have turned to Paul to mediate a problem that had arisen between him and his master. In reality, we do not know why he left his master’s home, but the traditional interpretation fits the letter well.
Date and Place of Writing
It is traditionally believed that Paul wrote the Prison Letters (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon) when he was in prison in Rome (AD 60–62 or about AD 64~65). It is also quite possible that these letters were written from Ephesus during an earlier imprisonment. See Ephesians Book Introduction, “Date and Place of Writing.”
Meaning and Message
This letter is a vivid illustration of the way that attitudes and relationships are transformed in Christ. Those who know Christ are to see people through the eyes of love and to express that love in their relationships with others.
Paul’s appeal to Philemon reminds us that, as Christians, we must always be willing to forgive one another. No matter how much we have been wronged by others, we must be quick to give them a warm-hearted welcome and show them our acceptance and love.
In the church of Christ, traditional social distinctions, such as the relationship between slave and master, must be transcended. We must show genuine love to all Christians, regardless of their economic or cultural status, education, ethnicity, or gender (see Gal 3:28; Col 3:11). Paul’s desire to reconcile Philemon and Onesimus is an example of such love.
Many people have wondered why Paul did not explicitly call for Onesimus’s freedom or for the abolition of slavery as an institution. In the Roman world, slavery was widespread; it was an integral part of society, and the whole of society was built on it. Paul, like most early Christians, seems to have accepted the traditional structures of society, including slavery. The mission of the early Christians was not to overthrow the structures of society but to see people converted and built up in Christ. Proclaiming the Good News of salvation would result in lives and relationships being transformed by Christ within the fellowship of the church.
Though Paul did not explicitly call for Onesimus’s release, he clearly hinted that he would like to see him freed for the work of the Good News. In his consistent emphasis on the importance of Christians living together in forgiveness and mutual love, he was planting the seeds that would one day result in the overthrow of slavery as an institution.
Heb.1.1-13.25
Have you ever known a person who turned his or her back on Christ and the church and simply walked away? Perhaps you have struggled to maintain your own Christian commitment in the face of disillusionment, spiritual confusion, loss of perspective, or outright persecution. The book of Hebrews points us to Christ. It provides light to help struggling Christians see Jesus clearly and stand firm.
Setting
As Christianity spread throughout the Mediterranean world, the first followers of Jesus Christ faced grave challenges. The Greco-Roman society misunderstood and mistrusted both Jews and Christians and considered them “atheists” because they did not believe in the Greek or Roman gods. Opposition to Christianity also arose from within traditional Judaism. Many Jews rejected Jesus as the Messiah. Those who converted to faith in Christ—from a Jewish or Gentile background—often paid a high price in their jobs, family connections, friendships, and other social associations. Persecution of Christians was common.
The believers to whom Hebrews was addressed probably belonged to a group of house churches in Rome in the early 60s AD. The Christian community in Rome was likely founded in the AD 30s when those present at Pentecost (Acts 2:10) made their way home. Roman believers had demonstrated courage and endurance (Heb 10:32-34), but by the time Hebrews was written, the spiritual fervor of some had grown cold (5:11-14), and their theological perspective was skewed (2:1). Some had even abandoned Christ and the church (6:4-8).
Summary
Hebrews is an energetic, well-crafted pastoral response to the needs of struggling people. In the style of a first-century sermon, the author alternates between exposition on the person and work of Christ and exhortation of the hearers to obedience and endurance. Through a detailed discussion on God’s Son, along with warnings, challenges, examples, and reminders of God’s faithfulness, the author calls the readers to persevere in following Christ.
Following an introduction to the whole sermon (1:1-4), the author’s exposition of Christ’s superiority develops in two great movements. The first movement (1:5–2:18) explains the Son’s relationship to the angels. The angels are servants (1:6-7, 14), but the exalted Son (1:13), with his unique relationship with the Father (1:5), is the Lord, creator, and sustainer of the universe—indeed, he is God (1:8-12). The author exhorts the hearers to pay careful attention to the message of salvation they have been taught (2:1-4), and then resumes the exposition. The exalted Christ’s position was temporarily lower than the angels when he became human (2:5-9); Jesus took on flesh and blood in order to die to set us free (2:10-18). The first exposition is followed by exhortation (3:1–4:13) that focuses on the need for faithful obedience and a continued promise of rest for God’s people.
The second movement of the exposition (4:14–10:18) addresses the position of the Son, our High Priest, in relation to the Old Testament sacrificial system. After introducing this theme 4:14-16, the author addresses the Son’s appointment as the superior High Priest (5:1-10) and confronts the community with their spiritual immaturity (5:11–6:20). A discussion of Melchizedek’s superiority to the Levitical priests (7:1-10) lays the groundwork for presenting Jesus as the superior High Priest according to the order of Melchizedek (7:11-28). In short, Jesus was not appointed according to the conventions of the Old Testament law, which said that priests should come from the tribe of Levi. Rather, he was appointed by God with an oath, on the basis of his indestructible life. The exposition then considers the superior offering of this appointed High Priest (8:3–10:18). Like the earthly priests, this superior priest had to make an offering for sins, but his offering was a new-covenant offering (8:7-13) that was superior to the old (9:1–10:18).
The final main section (10:19–13:25) is an exhortation that challenges the hearers to respond in faithfulness to the message about Christ. The book ends with a benediction and a formal conclusion (13:20-25).
Authorship
Unlike many other letters of the New Testament, Hebrews does not begin by identifying its author and recipients; many scholars today believe that this is because the book was originally written as a sermon. Since the earliest centuries of the church, the authorship of Hebrews has been much discussed. The book circulated with Paul’s letters, and some church fathers in the eastern half of the Mediterranean world (such as Origen and Clement of Alexandria) argued that Paul was the author. Others, especially around Rome, did not think Paul had written the book.
Almost all scholars today agree that Paul was not the author of Hebrews. First, in 2:3, the author is depicted as having received the Good News from the original witnesses who followed Christ, and this does not sound at all like Paul (see Rom 1:1; 1 Cor 15:8; Gal 1:11-16). Second, the style, theological images, and vocabulary are quite different from Paul’s; for example, Hebrews uses 169 words not found elsewhere in the New Testament.
Through the centuries, many other possible authors for the book have been suggested, such as Philip, Priscilla, Luke, Barnabas, Jude, and Clement of Rome. One of the most popular ideas, since Martin Luther first made the suggestion, is that Apollos wrote it. Luke describes Apollos in Acts 18:24-26 as an eloquent man from Alexandria who was a powerful orator and preacher.
Although we cannot identify the author of Hebrews with certainty, a careful study of the book reveals much about them. First, the excellent Greek in which the book is written and its expertly crafted forms of expression point to a highly educated person. Second, the author of Hebrews must have been a dynamic preacher, one trained in interpretation and exposition, who had memorized large portions of the Old Testament. Third, and most importantly, this author was a deeply concerned Christian leader who addressed their readers urgently and with passion. Hebrews is not simply a theological treatise, but a pastoral appeal that vies for the hearts and minds of those who are struggling in their Christian commitment.
Recipients
The author writes, “Greet all your leaders and all the believers there. The believers from Italy send you their greetings” (Heb 13:24). The author seems to have been writing back to Italy, and probably to Rome, sending greetings from Italian Christians who had traveled abroad.
Those addressed in this letter seem to have had some background in Jewish worship. The author’s use of the Old Testament and the theological concepts that are presented would have been familiar to those of the synagogue in the Mediterranean world. This does not necessarily mean that all of the recipients were Jews, since many Gentiles were part of the synagogue as “God-fearers” who worshiped the God of Israel.
Occasion of Writing
Some in the Christian community were evidently struggling to maintain their commitment as they were being persecuted. Passages such as Hebrews 10:32-39 suggest that this group of believers, which had faced persecution in the past, was facing it again. In the crucible of having to stand for Christ and the church in the face of public opposition, some were faltering spiritually and others had apparently turned their backs on the faith altogether. The author thus challenges this group of professed Christ followers to endure in their public profession of Christ.
If we are correct that Rome is the destination for this book, this word of exhortation might have been precipitated by the persecution that occurred under the emperor Nero, whose intense persecution and martyrdom of Christians in the mid-60s AD is well known. It is also possible that Hebrews was written after AD 70. This seems less likely, however, because at the time Hebrews was written, apparently no one in the community had faced martyrdom (see 12:4), but the pressure of persecution was on the rise.
Meaning and Message
God has spoken about his Son and through his Son (1:1-3), and there are dire consequences for those who do not listen and respond with obedience to that word (2:1-3). In the end, Jesus, the creator and sustainer of the universe (1:2-3), will put away the created order like a person rolls up an article of old clothing (1:10-12).
Jesus is supremely worthy of our commitment, worship, and endurance in the faith. He is superior to the angels (1:5-14), to Moses (3:1-6), and to the Levitical priesthood of the old covenant (5:1-10; 7:1-28).
Jesus has made a new, heavenly covenant, offering himself once for all through his own death (8:3–10:18). In his incarnation he endured as a faithful Son (3:1-6; 5:7-8; 12:1-2), and in his exaltation he reigns as the supreme Lord of the universe (1:2-4, 8-13). Jesus thus provides us with a superior basis for persevering in the Christian life and having hope for the future.
We can also look to positive examples of others who have been faithful in their journey to God’s eternal city (see 6:13-15; 10:32-39; 11:1-40), and to negative examples of those who fell through disobedience (see 3:7-19; 6:4-8). And we can embrace God’s promises to us concerning our inheritance as his children (4:3-11; 6:13-20; 12:22-24).
Because of Jesus, we can live as faithful members of the Christian community in our relationships and in our worship (13:1-17). Our perseverance in the Christian faith will be directly proportional to the clarity with which we understand who Jesus is and what he has accomplished on our behalf.
Jas.1.1-5.20
Can we be faithful friends of God like Abraham? Can we resist the pressures of the world, our rebellious human impulses, and the influence of the devil? Can Christians live together in peace as we seek solutions to life’s problems? James addresses these issues in his letter as he seeks to motivate Christians to develop a mature and consistent faith and to show how Christians are to live in their relationship with God and with one another.
Setting
James, Jesus’ brother, became the recognized leader of the Jerusalem church shortly after Jesus’ resurrection. He wrote to Jewish Christians (Jas 1:1) who had been scattered by the persecution which began with the stoning of Stephen (Acts 8:1; 11:19). They lived among the Jews who had previously been “scattered abroad” in the Diaspora (Jas 1:1; see John 7:35). The Diaspora had its origins in the Assyrian dispersion of Israel (the northern kingdom) in 722–721 BC and in the Babylonian exile of Judah (the southern kingdom) in 586 BC. This dispersion later included many Jews who traveled extensively throughout the Greek and Roman empires (Jas 4:13; Acts 13:14; 17:1). By the middle of the first century, there were Jewish communities all over the Greco-Roman world. Jewish Diaspora believers were under pressure from a society that oppressed them economically (Jas 2:6) and abused them for their faith in Jesus Christ (2:7).
Summary
The letter of James is written with a pastoral perspective, and it focuses on ethics more than any other book of the New Testament. The letter contains teachings based on the law as understood through the life and teaching of Jesus (1:25; 2:8). James also reflects Jesus’ own teachings, especially as (later) recorded in Matthew’s “Sermon on the Mount” (Matt 5–7) and Luke’s “Sermon on the Plain” (Luke 6:20-49).
Authorship
The letter of James was written by one of Jesus’ brothers. Like the other sons of Joesph and Mary (Matt 13:55), James (Greek Iakōbos) bore the name of an Israelite hero: Jacob (Hebrew Ya‘aqob; Greek Iakōb).
During Jesus’ public ministry, neither James nor the other siblings were followers of Jesus. They had even tried to end his ministry and bring him home (Mark 3:20-21; cp. John 7:3-5). After Jesus’ resurrection, James became a believer, presumably after a personal resurrection appearance convinced him that Jesus was the Christ (see 1 Cor 15:7). James was with the others in the upper room when the Spirit was given on Pentecost (Acts 1:14; 2:1-3), and he rose to a position of leadership in the Jerusalem church (see Acts 15:13-22).
Date and Location of Writing
The letter of James is perhaps the earliest book in the New Testament, written after the persecution under Herod Agrippa (AD 44, Acts 12:1-5), yet prior to the council in Jerusalem (AD 49~50). It reflects an early period prior to the conflict over circumcising Gentile converts and before the development of false teachings in other Christian communities. It was a time when synagogue (“meeting,” Jas 2:2) and church (5:14) could be used interchangeably, as could law and word (1:23, 25).
That this letter was written from Jerusalem is deduced from information in Acts and Galatians about James’s location (Acts 15:13-22; 21:18; Gal 1:18-19; 2:9, 12). The book contains allusions appropriate to Palestine, including references to the scorching heat (1:11); salty water springs (3:11-12); the cultivation of figs, olives, and grapevines (3:12); the sea (1:6; 3:4); and the early and later rains (5:7).
Literary Character
The letter of James is written in good Koiné Greek, the common Greek of the Greco-Roman world. It reflects the Hellenistic influences on Galilee and Palestine, as well as the enculturation of Jewish readers in the Diaspora. James writes with grammatical accuracy, has a wide vocabulary, and has an elegant feel for the rhythms and sounds of words. There are clear allusions to the Greek translation of the Old Testament (e.g., 4:6), along with some imagery from the Hellenistic world.
James uses many oratorical devices, such as fraternal appeals (1:2; 2:1; 3:1; 4:11), rhetorical questions (2:5; 3:11-12; 4:1), imperative exhortations (1:16; 3:1; 5:16), metaphors and illustrations (2:26; 3:3-5; 4:14), and aphorisms that summarize paragraphs (2:13, 17; 3:18; 4:17).
Meaning and Message
James’s primary concern is for his readers to maintain undivided faith and loyalty toward God (Jas 1:6). James recommends patient endurance (1:3), submission to God (4:7), and sharing in the ministries of the church (5:13-20). These will result in perfection (1:4), honor (4:10), and a glorious life (1:12) at the coming of Jesus Christ (5:8).
The Law. James maintained proper respect for the law of Moses and for Jewish traditions, such as the purification ceremonies conducted after a vow (Acts 21:18-25). James also expressed a sympathetic understanding of the Gentile mission when he concluded that Gentiles could be recognized as Christians without first becoming proselytes to Judaism. In doing so, he alluded to God’s covenant with Noah (Acts 15:19-22; see Gen 9:1-17). In his letter, we find James both upholding the law (Jas 1:25) and at the same time hinting at its reinterpretation through Jesus the Messiah (2:8-11).
Jewishness. James uses the symbols of Judaism with little criticism and uses the primary identity markers of Judaism without redefinition (contrast Rom 2:29). James addresses the readers as the “twelve tribes” (1:1) and identifies their church gathering as a synagogue (2:2) with elders (5:14) and teachers (3:1). He refers to the law of Moses repeatedly (1:25; 2:8-12; 4:11), cites the foundational creed of Israel (the Shema, 2:19), and names God as “the Lord of Heaven’s Armies” (5:4), a common Old Testament title for God. James also uses the literary elements of Old Testament wisdom literature (1:5; 3:13, 17) and prophetic exhortations (4:13; 5:1). And he appeals to Israelite heroes (Abraham, 2:21, 23; Rahab, 2:25; Job, 5:11; Elijah, 5:17). He does not, however, explicitly mention the ceremonial elements of Judaism, such as the Sabbath, circumcision, or food laws.
Works. The apparent differences between James and Paul regarding “good works” must be understood in their differing historical and theological contexts. Both Paul and James believed that only God, through his initiative of grace, could overcome the problem of human sin. Both Paul and James believed that a person must respond to God’s offer of salvation by faith. But they differed in their emphasis. Paul, who frequently confronted Jewish Christians for the requirements they sought to place upon Gentiles, emphasized that works of the law do not produce salvation (Eph 2:8-9)—people cannot get right with God by “doing what the law commands” (Rom 3:20, 28; Gal 2:16) or, indeed by anything that they might do (Rom 4:3-5). James, meanwhile, emphasizes that good deeds are the evidence of a genuine relationship with God based on faith. True biblical faith will always produce good deeds pleasing to God. James demonstrates that faith cannot be reduced to a mere affirmation of truth (2:19), and faithfulness does not allow for divided allegiance between God and the world (1:8; 4:4, 7).
Oppression. The letter of James helps us understand how Christians should live when they are a minority group in the midst of an oppressive, non-Christian society. James encourages his readers to endure their trials with fortitude and to exhibit consistent Christian character. The letter is full of godly counsel and wisdom for us today, particularly as we encounter difficulties in society in relation to our faith.
1Pet.1.1-5.14
First Peter has the single focus of encouraging Christians to exhibit faithfulness under the pressure arising from persecution. The believers to whom Peter wrote were in the midst of such “fiery trials.” The culture in which they lived scorned their faith, criticized their morality, and mocked their hope. Peter calls on readers to respond to this pressure with a renewed commitment to live out the grace of God, both to please God and to bear witness to him.
Setting
Many people in the ancient world regarded Christians as strange, superstitious, and disloyal to Roman society. Christians gathered in secret, practiced strange rituals (such as the Lord’s Supper, widely misunderstood as involving bloody sacrifice), and exhibited a countercultural lifestyle. They often refused to serve in the Roman army because they would not swear an oath to the emperor. Because of their refusal to go along with the prevailing culture, Christians were often discriminated against, accused of misbehavior, and brought into court on trumped-up charges.
This is the situation that 1 Peter addresses. Believers were undergoing very difficult trials (1:6; 4:12), and other groups were saying evil things about them (4:4; see 3:16). The followers of Christ were tempted to retaliate in kind and repay harsh words with harsh words. They were also tempted to compromise their godly lifestyle because of the grief it caused them.
Peter was well aware of these temptations, so his letter encourages believers to view the accusations and unfair treatment as an opportunity to bear witness to Jesus Christ. By following the example of their own Lord, who lived an exemplary life before all and refused to revile those who reviled him, Christians can practice a lifestyle of true evangelism.
Summary
After a typical opening for a letter (1:1-2), Peter exhorts his readers in the first section (1:3–2:12) to regard their present, temporary suffering as a strengthening of their faith and as preparation for them to receive salvation (1:3-9). This salvation is so great that prophets predicted it and angels investigate it (1:10-12). This gift of salvation should result in a life of holiness that recognizes the cost at which God purchased our salvation (1:13-21). The first section concludes with a call for love and patience toward fellow Christians (1:22–2:3) and a reminder of our status as the new covenant people of God (2:4-12).
The second part of the letter (2:13–3:12) exhorts Christians to live under the recognized authorities as a witness to a hostile world. Christians are to accept the authority of government (2:13-17), Christian slaves are to accept the authority of their masters (2:18-25), and Christian wives are to accept the authority of their husbands (3:1-6). Husbands, meanwhile, are to honor their wives (3:7). This section ends with general exhortations to behavior that God rewards (3:8-12).
The third section (3:13–4:11) begins with a challenge to respond to social pressures with honorable and respectful behavior, even when it results in abuse (3:13-17). Peter reminds his readers that the hope of redemption is secure because of Christ’s life, death, resurrection, and ascension (3:18-22). Peter renews his call to abandon the ways and values of the world (4:1-6) and concludes with various exhortations (4:7-11).
The fourth section of the letter (4:12–5:11) opens with a final call to stand firm in the midst of suffering (4:12-19). Peter then concludes with a charge to elders (5:1-4), younger men (5:5), and the church at large (5:5-11). The letter ends with customary greetings (5:12-14).
Author and Recipients
The opening verse of the letter identifies the author as the apostle Peter and the recipients as “God’s chosen people” living in “the provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia“.” These Roman provinces occupied the northern portion of Asia Minor, the peninsula that today forms most of Turkey. We have no record of Peter’s visiting this area, nor does the letter indicate such a visit. In fact, we have little information about Peter’s movements and activities after his initial days of ministry in Jerusalem and Judea (Acts 1:1–12:25). Luke tells us that after being miraculously rescued from prison, Peter “went to another place” (Acts 12:17). Speculations abound, but we simply don’t know where he went. Peter was back for the council in Jerusalem (Acts 15:1-41; AD 49~50) and apparently spent some time ministering in Corinth (see 1 Cor 1:12; 9:5). He was also in Antioch at some point (Gal 2:11-16). Christian tradition places Peter in Rome at the end of his life, where he suffered a martyr’s death at the hands of the emperor Nero (probably AD 64 or 65).
Place and Date of Writing
The apostle was evidently in Rome when he wrote this letter. “Your sister church here in Babylon” (5:13) is almost certainly a reference to the church in Rome. The ancient city of Babylon, well-known from later Old Testament books, was small and insignificant in Peter’s day (the first century AD), and it would be surprising if Peter had ever traveled so far east. But because the ancient city of Babylon had been so dominant in the 600s–500s BC, the name came to symbolize the center of world power and cultural influence. The book of Revelation thus uses Babylon as a code word for Rome (see Rev 17:5), and Peter was probably doing the same. If Peter wrote this letter from Rome, then it was probably written toward the end of his life. This supposition is confirmed by the presence of Mark with Peter (see 1 Pet 5:13). Christian tradition places Mark in Rome with Peter in the late 50s and early 60s AD. We can surmise, then, that Peter wrote this letter from Rome in the early 60s AD.
Occasion of Writing
Peter’s letter was motivated by the severe trials that the Christians in northern Asia Minor were experiencing. Attempts have sometimes been made to identify the situation and date of 1 Peter by connecting the letter to a known official persecution. The letter, however, does not suggest that the Christians were being subjected to an official, state-sponsored program of persecution. Most often, pressures came from the general populace, sometimes aided and abetted by local officials.
Meaning and Message
First Peter encourages Christians to maintain a life of holiness in the midst of the pressures created by the non-Christian, and often anti-Christian, atmosphere in which they live. Peter pursues three key ideas. First, believers must understand that we have experienced the salvation that God promised through his prophets and which the angels are “eagerly watching” (1:12; see 1:5, 10). We are God’s own children (1:14), born again through God’s powerful word (1:23). We are the stones that God is using to construct a new, spiritual temple (2:5) and a chosen people called out of darkness into light (2:9-10). Because we enjoy all these privileges, we have become foreigners and aliens in this world (1:1, 17; 2:12). Christians live in the world but do not belong to the world.
The second key idea is that Christians, who are God’s people, need to pursue a lifestyle that embodies the values of heaven, not the values of this world. As God’s children, Christians need to imitate their Father and become holy, as he is holy (1:15-16). We need to love each other (1:22) and have respect for authorities. Peter sums all this up in his call to “do good,” even and especially to those who abuse and cause difficulty (3:16-17; 4:19).
The third key idea is that believers have become a holy people because of Christ. Jesus’ death and resurrection provide the foundation for our new identity (1:18-19; 3:18), and his victory over evil powers gives us hope and confidence (1:3-9; 3:19-22). Christ provided for our salvation and our holiness and has also given us an example to imitate. Christ did not retaliate when he was criticized, persecuted, and even executed (2:21-25). We are to follow in his footsteps, refuse to retaliate, and use our trials as an occasion to testify about the grace and power of God.
2Pet.1.1-3.18
Many worldviews, religious perspectives, and cultural values clamor for attention. Second Peter urges growth in Christ’s grace and warns against compromising the Christian faith by mixing it with ideas that are foreign to Christianity.
Setting
Second Peter was probably written to the same group of Christians as 1 Peter (1 Pet 1:1; see 2 Pet 3:1). We do not know if Peter ever visited Asia Minor—the New Testament tells us little about his movements after he departed from Jerusalem around AD 44 (Acts 12:16-17). We know that Peter was in Rome in the early 60s AD. Presumably, he wrote 2 Peter from Rome shortly after 1 Peter. Early Christian tradition indicates that Peter died under the emperor Nero in AD 64 or 65.
Summary
In the letter opening (1:1-15), Peter identifies himself and his readers (1:1-2) and introduces his main concern, that his readers will grow in their knowledge of God and of Christ (1:3-11). He also tells them with a sense of urgency that he does not have long to live (1:12-15).
Chapter 2 is the central focus of this letter, where Peter profiles and condemns false teachers. Peter prepares for this denunciation by emphasizing the certainty of Christ’s return in glory (1:16-21). The false teachers were evidently skeptical about Christ’s return and final judgment.
Peter denounces the false teachers in four stages: He predicts the coming of false teachers (2:1-3), he insists that God will judge them while rescuing the righteous (2:4-10), he declares the false teachers’ sins (2:10-16), and he pronounces their doom (2:17-22).
After further insisting that Christ will, indeed, return in glory to transform the world (3:1-13), Peter concludes the letter as he began, by praying that his readers will “grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ” (3:18; see 1:3-11).
Authorship
The author identifies himself as Simon Peter (1:1), one of Jesus’ apostles. Peter claims that “this is my second letter to you” (3:1). The first letter was probably 1 Peter.
In many ways, however, 2 Peter is unlike 1 Peter, while containing striking similarities to the letter of Jude. Because of this, some interpreters think that someone else wrote 2 Peter. This conclusion is unnecessary because 2 Peter is dealing with a situation very different from 1 Peter; naturally, the language and concepts differ. Moreover, it is possible that Silas (Peter’s scribe mentionedalso called Silvanus in 1 Pet 5:12) was responsible for some of the wording of 1 Peter and that Peter used a different scribe in 2 Peter.
Relationship to Jude
It is undeniable that 2 Peter and Jude have some kind of literary relationship. The two letters use too many of the same unusual expressions for the similarities to be coincidental or a matter of shared oral tradition (cp. 2 Pet 2:3 // Jude 1:4; 2 Pet 2:4 // Jude 1:6; 2 Pet 2:6 // Jude 1:7; 2 Pet 2:10 // Jude 1:8; 2 Pet 2:11 // Jude 1:9; 2 Pet 2:13, 17 // Jude 1:12; 2 Pet 3:3 // Jude 1:8). This relationship can be explained in one of three ways: (1) Jude borrowed from 2 Peter; (2) 2 Peter borrowed from Jude; or (3) both 2 Peter and Jude borrowed from a common literary source now lost. Option 2 is the most popular, although option 1 is equally possible. Option 3 is least likely, simply because it is more complicated and unnecessary. Whichever author did the borrowing was apparently faced with a very similar situation and found what the other had written to be appropriate to his own purposes. Such borrowing was not uncommon in the ancient world; rather than being considered plagiarism, it was considered a compliment.
False Teachers
The false teachers that Peter denounces cannot be identified with any known heresy in the ancient church. With their immorality and skepticism, these false teachers assumed that God’s grace gave them the liberty to do anything they wanted to do (2 Pet 2:19-20). They had no use for authority (see 2:10-11). They engaged in illicit sex, excess drinking and eating, and greed (2:13-20). They might have been precursors to the later, second-century Gnostics.
Meaning and Message
Second Peter is dominated by a concern over the presence of false teachers in the church. Although these profligates were claiming to be Christians (2:1, 21-22), Peter leaves no doubt that in reality they were destined for condemnation as rebels against the Lord (2:3, 10). Peter writes this letter to warn his readers to reject these false teachers and their teaching, and to remain faithful to the Good News. This letter is a vital reminder of how dangerous it is to deviate from the truth. The church must always be on guard against those who twist the truth of the Good News and whose lives sadly misrepresent it.
1Jn.1.1-5.21
John’s first letter applies John’s testimony about Jesus Christ to the lives of believers. Because Jesus Christ came to offer eternal life, we can know by our experience and behavior that we have eternal life. Because Jesus came to reveal the Father, we can be confident in our relationship with the Father. Because Jesus gives the Spirit to each one who is born again, we can live daily in the Spirit. Just as Jesus called his first disciples to love one another, John calls on believers to put that love into action.
Setting
John and the other apostles were probably forced to leave Jerusalem by AD 68, if not earlier, due to the mounting persecution against the church and the siege of Jerusalem by Roman armies. Sometime later (probably after AD 70), John migrated to the Roman province of Asia (the western region of modern Turkey) and began a successful ministry, primarily among the Gentiles. By AD 90, John had written his Gospel for these believers.
Soon after this, some members of the Christian community left to form a rival group. These rivals were a heretical faction that promoted teachings about Jesus Christ that later characterized Gnosticism, such as denying that Jesus was God in the flesh (see 4:1-3). By leaving the fellowship of the apostles, they demonstrated that they did not genuinely belong to God’s family (2:18-19). However, the effects of their false teachings still lingered in the minds of the faithful, so John wrote this letter to clear the air of these falsehoods, to bring the believers back to the basics of the Christian life, and to reinforce their faith.
John may have specifically confronted the form of heresy that was promoted by Cerinthus. Cerinthus taught that Jesus was not born to a virgin but was a normal human being born to Joseph and Mary and was simply more righteous, prudent, and wise than other men. He also taught that at Jesus’ baptism, “the Christ” descended upon him in the form of a dove from the eternal Father; “the Christ” then proclaimed the unknown Father and performed miracles. At last “the Christ” departed from the man “Jesus,” and then Jesus (but not “the Christ”) suffered and died, while “the Christ” remained untouched, inasmuch as he was a spiritual being. John may be explicitly refuting the heresy of Cerinthus or his followers in 5:5-8.
This first letter went out to the churches under John’s care (including the churches that are mentioned in Rev 1:11) around AD 85–90.
Summary
John wrote this epistle to encourage believers in the Roman province of Asia to remain steadfast in Christ, and he denounced those who had not remained in the apostolic fellowship. John stressed that Christians must maintain loyalty to Jesus’ apostles—those who had followed Jesus during his life and had known him personally—in order to safeguard against pseudo-spirituality and heresy. John urged his Christian readers to:
1. maintain loyalty in fellowship toward the apostles and thus to have fellowship with God, who is light, by living in the light he gives us;
2. confess their sins to God and thus know the advocacy of Jesus Christ, the righteous one;
3. esteem Jesus Christ as the Word of life, the Son of God;
4. love God, who is love, and love other Christians;
5. remain in Christ, become like Christ, and purify themselves of worldly lusts;
6. know and experience God personally and understand the truth through the Spirit;
7. discern false teaching by the aid of the Spirit and recognize the spirit of false prophets and of the antichrist; and
8. be assured of the hope of eternal life.
Author
Some scholars have suggested that a Christian elder named John, but not the apostle, was the author of 1–3 John (see 2 Jn 1:1; 3 Jn 1:1). They make this judgment on the basis of a quotation from Papias (bishop of Hierapolis in the province of Asia, AD 100–130), who mentioned John the apostle and then later mentioned John the elder:
If anywhere one came my way who had been a follower of the elders, I would inquire about the words of the elders—what Andrew and Peter had said, or what Thomas or James or John or Matthew or any other of the Lord’s disciples; and I would inquire about the things which Aristion and the elder John, the Lord’s disciples, are saying. (Eusebius, Church History 3.39.4)
This quote has led some to think that Papias was speaking of two different people named John, but that is not necessarily the case. Papias noted what the “elders” (including the apostles, such as John) had said about Jesus and what two of the Lord’s disciples (Aristion and John) were still saying (present tense). The apostle John lived to be a very old man, and Papias had heard him speak in person.
Most evangelical scholars think that John the apostle and John the elder are the same person. The writing style of John’s Gospel is undeniably similar to that of these three letters. The apostle John was an eyewitness of Jesus and one of the very first to follow him. In John’s Gospel, John is called “the one whom Jesus loved” (John 13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7, 20). He was one of the twelve disciples and a very close friend to Jesus. The author’s claim to be an eyewitness is as strong in the letters (see 1 Jn 1:1-4) as it is in the Gospel (John 1:14; 19:35). The author of 1 John claims to have personally heard, seen, and touched the eternal Word made flesh (1 Jn 1:1-4). It is reasonable to conclude that the “elder” of 1–3 John is the apostle John.
Meaning and Message
John’s first letter is a natural extension of his Gospel. John’s Gospel shows that it was Jesus’ mission to reveal God the Father and to bring believers into union with the Father and the Son through the Spirit. John’s first letter emphasizes how Christians experience God in daily life, as demonstrated by their relationships with the other members of the church community. We must exhibit our love for God by loving one another. This command came straight from Jesus (John 13:34; 15:17), and John repeats it often (1 Jn 2:7; 3:11, 23; 2 Jn 1:5-6). Since God is love, all who claim to know God must love others.
To love other Christians, however, does not mean accepting everything they say or all that independent teachers teach. There were people who broke away from the community who were denying that Jesus is the Christ, the unique Son of God, or that he had come as a human being. All such people who deny the true humanity and/or the full deity of Jesus Christ are antichrists. This letter warns strongly against those who teach such heresy and lead Christians away from fellowship with the true apostles of Christ.
History shows that many heretical movements have infiltrated the church, but the truth has withstood these assaults. We need to be wary of teachings that are contrary to the teaching of the apostles; the word of God and the Holy Spirit are our guides.
2Jn.1.1-13
Second John is the shortest book in the New Testament, containing only thirteen verses. In antiquity, the entire letter would have fit on one sheet of papyrus. The first letter of John elaborated the principles of continuing in the truth, loving fellow believers, and watching out for false teachers. This letter gives us an example of applying these principles to a concrete situation.
Setting
The setting of 2 John is similar to that of 1 John (see 1 John Book Introduction, “Setting”). False teachers had been traveling in Asia Minor, teaching a heresy about Jesus known as Docetism. These deceivers rejected the apostolic teaching that Jesus, the divine Christ, had a physical, human body, and they were persuading others to think the same way. These deceivers were probably the heretics John alludes to in his first letter. Some of the members of the church, influenced by this teaching, had broken away to form a new sect. The apostle John was exhorting the believers in Asia Minor to be strong in their faith, in their grasp of the truth of the apostolic message concerning Jesus Christ, and in their love for one another.
Summary
This personal letter begins with a greeting (1:1-3) and then states the author’s wishes (1:4-11). Above all, John wanted his readers to continue adhering to the truth and to love one another. John warns the believers about false teachers who might come among them, and he encourages them to hold on to the apostles’ teachings concerning Jesus Christ so that they will receive their full reward. At the same time, he commands them not to welcome false teachers into their meetings or their homes or to help them in any way. They should not even wish them well; to do so would be to participate in their heresy. John closes his letter with a promise to visit soon and with greetings from the church.
Author
Some scholars have thought that the John who penned this letter (1:1) was a different John from the apostle, but there are strong reasons to conclude that John the apostle wrote these letters (see 1 John Book Introduction, “Author”).
Recipients
The recipients of 2 John were identified as a “chosen lady and . . . her children” (1:1). This might refer to a specific woman named Kyria and her biological children (the Greek word kyria, “lady,” can be a proper name). However, it is likely that John was speaking about a particular local church (“the chosen lady”) and its individual members (“her children”; cp. 1 Pet 5:13). If so, 2 John was probably sent to one of the churches under John’s care in Asia Minor.
Meaning and Message
The message of 2 John is twofold. First, the members of the Christian community must love one another (1:5). The outworking of this love follows Jesus’ commands (1:6). Second, John warns the church about false teachers who needed to be exposed, avoided, and shunned.
Many of the New Testament Epistles were written, at least in part, to deal with some form of heretical teaching. This is true of several of Paul’s letters: Galatians (Gal 1:6), Colossians (Col 2:16-23), 2 Thessalonians (2 Thes 2:1-3), and 1 Timothy (1 Tim 4:1; 6:20-21). Peter wrote his second letter to counter false teachers (2 Pet 2:1-22), and Jude wrote his letter for the same reason (Jude 1:3-4). John’s letters, likewise, were written as antidotes to the poisonous effects of false teachings, such as Gnosticism and Docetism, that were infecting many of the early churches.
3Jn.1.1-15
This small personal letter provides a window into some issues of leadership and conflict in the early churches. A man named Diotrephes was improperly controlling the church and rejecting the apostle and his emissaries. By contrast, Gaius and Demetrius were two men who remained faithful to the church and to the apostle John.
Setting
The apostle John wrote this letter in the same time period as 1 John and 2 John (see 1 John Book Introduction, “Setting”). Some teachers and leaders, claiming to be spiritual, taught a different doctrine about Christ and did not make the same disciplinary demands upon the members of their churches. They assumed their own authority and refused the authority of John. They also perverted the teaching of the apostles. Diotrephes was one of those who had broken away from the apostolic fellowship (cp. 1 Jn 2:18-19). As a leader in one of the local churches, he rejected John’s authority and refused to accept the teachers John sent to the church. He even excommunicated those in the church who did receive them and provide them with hospitality.
Knowing the situation, John wrote this letter to Gaius, a faithful member of that church, encouraging him to continue welcoming and hosting John’s emissaries and to remain faithful to John’s teaching and fellowship.
Summary
Of all the New Testament letters, 3 John is most typical of personal letters in first-century Greece and Rome. As with other letters of this era, 3 John begins (1:1-4) with an identification of the writer (“the elder”) and the recipient (“Gaius”), followed by a wish for the recipient’s welfare.
In the body of this letter (1:5-12), John commends Gaius and reproves Diotrephes. Gaius acted commendably in welcoming the traveling teachers, and they had in turn reported to John that Gaius was living according to the truth. This gave John great joy, and he encourages Gaius to continue demonstrating this kind of hospitality.
In contrast to Gaius, a church leader named Diotrephes earned the apostle’s censure (1:9-10). Diotrephes’ love for prestigious leadership caused him to rebuff John’s authority and to persuade others to do the same. Diotrephes even excommunicated those who didn’t follow his own leadership. Gaius is warned not to submit to the aggressive leadership of Diotrephes or be influenced by his bad example.
John then highlights the good reputation of a man named Demetrius (1:12). John’s purpose in doing so is not clear to us today, but it’s possible that he was offering Gaius an alternative to Diotrephes to assume leadership in that community.
John closes the letter by mentioning plans for a future visit and offering greetings (1:13-15).
Author and Date
The author of this epistle calls himself simply “the elder” (see 1:1), perhaps reflecting his age, or perhaps conveying his authority with respect to his readers. Church tradition has identified this elder as John the apostle, an elderly man and an elder of the churches in Asia Minor during the last decades of the first century (see 1 John Book Introduction, “Author”). Third John was probably written during the same period as 1 John and 2 John, around AD 85–90.
Meaning and Message
John’s third letter is concerned with a problem introduced in 1 John: Some church leaders followed false teaching and ignored the authority of the apostles.
We cannot claim to love God and the truth if we don’t follow apostolic teaching and if we don’t join in fellowship with God’s church, the members of his family.
Jude.1.1-25
The very brief letter of Jude has a single focus: to warn believers against succumbing to false teaching. Jude helps believers in Christ stay true to the faith by painting a grim portrait of deviant teachers. Arrogant, immoral, and greedy, these teachers are destined for the terrible judgment God has in store for all who deny and defy him. Who would want to follow such people to their condemnation? In a world with so many distorted ideas about Christianity, we need to be reminded of the dangers of false teaching.
Setting
Jude wrote this letter to combat false teachers in the early church. Jude focuses less on what these people were teaching than on the way they were living; at the heart of Jude’s critique is the charge that they were libertines—they assumed that God’s grace revealed in Christ gave them the freedom to do whatever they pleased (1:4). They had no respect for authority (see 1:8-9), and they engaged in many sinful behaviors (1:16, 19). These profligates, who claimed to be followers of Christ (see 1:4), were effectively denying the Lord and were therefore destined for the condemnation of all who rebel against him.
Summary
After the letter opening (1:1-2), Jude explains the situation prompting his letter (1:3-4): The imminent danger posed by the false teachers required that he write a very different kind of letter from the one he had planned to write.
In 1:5-16, Jude elaborates on the character of these false teachers. This section unfolds in an A-B-A’ sequence. Jude first uses three scriptural examples to illustrate the condemnation that the false teachers face (A, 1:5-10). He then cites three more scriptural examples to castigate them for their ungodly attitudes and behavior (B, 1:11-13). At the end of this section, he returns to their condemnation, citing Jewish tradition to hammer home his indictment (A’, 1:14-16).
Jude then appeals directly to his readers (1:17-23), urging them to hold fast to God’s truth and to reach out to believers who might be tempted to follow the false teachers. The letter ends with a notable doxology (1:24-25).
Author
Jude identifies himself as “a brother of James” (1:1). This James is almost certainly the “Lord’s brother” (Gal 1:19; see Matt 13:55 // Mark 6:3), who became the recognized leader of the Jerusalem church (Acts 15:13-21; 21:18) and wrote the letter of James. Jude was therefore also a brother of Jesus (Jude is called “Judas” in Matt 13:55 // Mark 6:3). Jude and the other brothers of Jesus did not follow Jesus during his earthly ministry (John 7:5), but evidently became believers after the Resurrection (see Acts 1:14; 1 Cor 15:7) and traveled to spread the message about the resurrected Lord (1 Cor 9:5).
Date and Destination
We know so little about Jude that we cannot pin down a date or destination for the letter. It was probably written after AD 45, to allow time for the kind of false teaching described here to develop. It was probably written before AD 90, when even a young brother of Jesus would have been old. The close relationship between 2 Peter and Jude suggests that the two might have been written at about the same time (see 2 Peter Book Introduction, “Relationship to Jude”).
Meaning and Message
False Teachers. False teachers of many varieties have disturbed God’s people over the years. Jude’s letter is a powerful reminder of their potential to harm the community and offers a stark depiction of their terrible fate. Jude’s description of the false teachers makes dynamic use of the Old Testament and other Jewish traditions. Jude compares the false teachers to the rebellious Israelites in the wilderness (1:5), to the angels who rebelled against God (1:6), and to the sinners of Sodom and Gomorrah (1:7). The false teachers are like Cain (see Gen 4), Balaam (see Num 22–24), and Korah (see Num 16). Like all of these examples, false teachers are rebels against the Lord and will experience his judgment.
Defending the Faith. In 1:3, Jude implies that there is a core message in the early church which serves as the basis for Christian belief. Paul assumes the same thing when he urges Timothy to “guard what God has entrusted to you” (1 Tim 6:20; see 2 Tim 1:14).
To be a Christian means to have faith in God and love for others; it also means to confess gladly the truth that God has revealed in Jesus Christ. We cannot truly express faith in God unless we acknowledge the truth that he has revealed. For this reason, early Christians, even in the New Testament period, formulated creedal statements to summarize the essentials of Christian truth (e.g., 1 Tim 3:16). These creeds were often crafted to counteract a false teaching.
If we are to heed Jude’s call to “defend the faith,” we need to know just what that faith is. Too many Christians spend too much energy in debating nonessential details and too little in learning the essentials well. Only by learning the essentials will the faithful be able to explain their faith to others and to guard Christian truth from false teaching.
Rev.1.1-22.21
John’s Apocalypse is a magnificent and wonderfully designed message of the salvation that is available in Jesus Christ. The book blesses all who ponder it and sternly warns those who oppose Christ and the Good News and those whose Christian walk is shallow. The unfolding drama of the book stretches the imagination while bearing witness to God’s supreme power. Its visions describe the plight of Christians, God’s judgments on their persecutors, and eternal hope and promise for God’s faithful people.
Setting
Revelation was probably written in the AD 90s, though it could have been written in the AD 60s. During these periods, Christians experienced increasing pressure and persecution. By the 90s, the Jews had condemned Christianity in their councils at Jamnia (AD 70–85). They then reported Christians to Roman authorities as religious deviants who did not deserve protection under the religious licensing laws that allowed Jews to practice their faith. At the same time, Rome demanded absolute loyalty to the emperor. At that point, there may have been no official persecution in the empire as a whole, but in the pro-Roman province of Asia (modern-day Turkey), those who refused to worship the emperor were prone to face harsh persecution.
In the face of such persecution, Revelation dramatically reminds Christians of the source of their hope and vindication and firmly challenges them to remain faithful. The Christians in the province of Asia may have appeared weak and powerless to the world, but Revelation repeatedly reminded them, as it still reminds us, that the God we serve is almighty. God controls history; he has accomplished our salvation and continues to work out his purposes.
Summary
Revelation begins in an unusual way, with three separate introductions. John first spells out the visionary nature of the book (1:1-3); there is then a letter salutation (1:4-8) followed by a historical introduction (1:9-11).
The book then describes a vision of Jesus (1:12-20). In letters to seven churches in the province of Asia, Christ personally addresses the believers and the life of the churches (chs 2–3). Following these letters, chs 4–5 set the stage for the drama that follows by displaying God’s sovereign majesty and picturing Jesus as both a lion and a lamb.
The heart of the book (chs 6–16) describes a drama in three acts of judgment. In the first act (6:1–8:1), Christ opens seven seals that result in seven judgments. This act also contains the first interlude (ch 7), which shows God’s people being protected from harm.
The second act portrays seven angels blowing seven trumpets (8:2–11:19) in a second view of judgment on the world. The sixth trumpet is followed by a mysterious second interlude (10:1-10) in which an angel, a little scroll, and seven secretive thunders provide an opening for a bittersweet picture of two witnesses who proclaim God’s message (11:1-14). The final trumpet presents heaven, the coming Kingdom of Christ the Lord (11:15-19).
Following the second act, Revelation shifts to a series of three great signs and symbolic portraits. ch 12 depicts the cosmic battle between good and evil and the birth of the promised deliverer, Christ, whom God rescues from Satan’s destructive intentions (12:1-10). Although defeated, Satan—portrayed as a dragon—continues to create havoc among God’s people (12:11-17). The book next introduces two other beasts, who with the dragon form a false “evil trinity” in the world (ch 13). These evil forces contrast starkly with the Lamb of God and his faithful servants standing on Mount Zion, the place of God’s redemption and rule (14:1-5). Three angels deliver God’s message of coming judgment and the destruction of the evil forces (14:6-20).
The third and final act of judgment involves seven plagues (ch 16), which John introduces with a joint song by Moses and the Lamb (ch 15).
After the plagues, John narrates the end of the great prostitute, Babylon (or Rome, ch 17). While the world mourns the passing of this supposed source of security (18:1-19), heaven, the apostles, and the prophets rejoice at its destruction (18:20-24) with songs of God’s victory (19:1-10). God’s enemies have no chance of success against the Lord of lords. The beasts (the power structures of the world) and all who follow them meet their just end in the lake of fire when Jesus destroys his enemies in the battle of Armageddon (19:11-21). While the devil is imprisoned (20:1-3), the saints of God enjoy a respite as they reign with Christ on earth (20:4-6). Despite Satan’s all-out attempt to defeat God in battle, he too is thrown into the lake of fire (20:7-10). All who follow the dragon are judged before the throne of God, and death—humanity’s greatest nemesis—is terminated (20:11-15).
Finally, John paints a marvelous picture of heaven, stretching the human imagination with design, size, and symbolic images (chs 21–22). These scenes, with their vision of hope, make a fitting conclusion to Revelation and to the entire Bible. The Spirit and the church invite all readers to come and receive God’s eternal promise (22:17). The book closes with the ongoing prayer of those who follow Christ: “Come, Lord Jesus!” (22:20).
Interpreting Revelation
The book of Revelation is an exciting work that has bewildered many readers, perhaps because of its nature as both a prophecy and an apocalypse. John Calvin, the Swiss reformer, wrote commentaries on every book in the Bible except Revelation, which indicates that he wasn’t confident that he fully understood the book. Martin Luther did not think that Revelation taught enough about justification by faith; therefore, he assigned Revelation a sub-canonical status, not viewing it as authoritative for doctrine but only for Christian life. In light of the interpretive difficulties, many Christian teachers follow suit by avoiding the book of Revelation entirely, or only speak about the letters to the churches (chs 2–3).
Through the centuries, interpreters have argued over the meaning of Revelation. Some have used their interpretations of the book to categorize as apostate or heretical other Christians who don’t share their views. Others spend months and years searching the book for information about recent and upcoming events. The study materials in this product tend to interpret the visions as reflecting the world and experience of the original churches—situated in the Roman Empire—to whom it was first written. The entire drama and message of the book, however, reveals great treasures to encourage believers of all eras in their faith.
The Nature of Revelation
The entire Bible is inspired by God (see 2 Tim 3:15-17; 2 Pet 1:20-21). Some books, such as Romans, the historical books, and some of the prophets, primarily address the intellect. Other books, such as the Psalms and other poetical writings, engage the emotions. The book of Revelation, however, appeals to the imagination (as do some Old Testament works, such as Ezekiel and parts of Daniel and Zechariah). Revelation speaks through visions, images, and figurative language rather than logical reasoning. The book sometimes presents the literal and the symbolic in intriguing combinations. It resists being treated as a system of end-times doctrines, as those who have tried to systematize it have often discovered.
Because of its nature, reading Revelation requires imagination. It is like entering the realm of dreams with God and discovering that they contain a marvelous message from him. Instead of trying to fit all of Revelation’s scenes into a logical system, readers will benefit from thinking in pictures. For example, when John says that “all the green grass was burned” (8:7) and then later says that the locusts are instructed not to “harm the grass” (9:4), such statements seem contradictory. The incongruity is resolved, however, when we realize that John is describing what he saw in two different visions and that the two visions are not meant to narrate a sequence of events—they are meant to portray God’s message in pictures. Similarly, we read in the vision of heaven that “the Temple of God was opened” (11:19), but later we find “no temple” there (21:22). Again, the focus of each vision is different; readers must not try to read one vision into another but instead concentrate on the main point of each vision on its own terms. Early readers, familiar with the logic of metaphors, understood the nature of picture-thinking. Just as they knew not to read one of Jesus’ parables into another, they avoided trying to systematize or conflate John’s visions.
Apocalyptic Writing
Through word pictures and visions, John magnificently transports our minds to the realm of imagination. John was not alone in writing this way—he used a familiar kind of literature to convey his message. These imaginative works are called “apocalyptic” (Greek “uncover”) because they claim to reveal a new vision of reality. Such works were often written during times of great stress and persecution as encouragement. Apocalyptic writings often used symbolic names, numbers, and descriptions as a “code” so that outside readers (particularly enemies) who did not possess the key to the code would not understand the implications of the message. The work would seem to them like double talk or nonsense. In Revelation, for instance, Babylon is used as a code for Rome (17:5-9).
The Old Testament contains examples of apocalyptic literature in Daniel and Zechariah (see Daniel Book Introduction, “Daniel as Literature”; Zechariah Book Introduction, “Literary Genre”). In Jewish apocalyptic literature, God is usually pictured as transcendent and fully in control of history, even when the situation might seem bleak to readers. God’s message is usually presented through visions, dreams, or journeys to cosmic or spiritual realms. These revelations gave seers, dreamers, interpreters, and prophets messages of hope and salvation for God’s people and messages of judgment on God’s enemies. The prophets were obliged to share their messages with others—particularly with God’s people, who were under persecution and in distress. Readers understood that the promises of hope would not be fulfilled immediately; these promises were generally expressed as part of a coming cataclysmic judgment in which God would destroy his enemies and bring final bliss to his people. Meanwhile, God’s people were to remain faithful and persevere in the face of suffering, understanding that God would soon deliver them. All of these features find expression in Revelation.
As a seer or a visionary, John also refers to his work as a “prophecy” (1:3; 22:7); he does not mean that it is prophecy simply in a predictive sense, but in the Old Testament sense of proclaiming a message from God that is addressed to his people. John’s prophetic visions emphasize that God’s answer to distressing times will not be entirely realized until the end of history and in the coming eternity.
Author
Many Jewish apocalypses were written after the books that now make up the Old Testament canon were completed, at a time when Jews believed that prophecy had ceased and that the word of the Lord for them was primarily to be found in the Law and the Prophets. These Jewish writers wrote under the names of earlier godly persons such as Ezra, Baruch, Enoch, Isaiah, and even Adam so that their writings would gain credibility and acceptance. These works are called pseudepigrapha (literally “false writings”) because they were written under pseudonyms. Similarly, in the post-apostolic era, fanciful writers and false teachers adopted this practice by using the names of earlier followers of Jesus (such as Peter, James, John, and even Mary) to gain a hearing from Christians.
By contrast, the books collected in the New Testament were written under their authors’ own names (see Rom 1:1; 2 Thes 3:17) or were legitimately apostolic even though they do not claim an author by name (e.g., Matthew, Hebrews). The author of Revelation identifies himself simply as John (1:1, 4, 9). In the early church, this John was generally identified as the apostle John, who refers to himself in the Gospel bearing his name as “the disciple Jesus loved” (John 13:23; 19:26; 20:2; 21:7); in his epistles, he calls himself “the elder” (3 Jn 1:1).
Date of Writing
John received the visions presented in Revelation while he was a political and religious prisoner on Patmos, a rocky island used as a Roman prison off the western coast of Asia Minor near Ephesus (Rev 1:9).
John probably wrote Revelation during the concluding years of Domitian’s reign (AD 94–96) or immediately following (AD 96–99). The eight kings (17:7-11) may refer to the eight Roman emperors from Augustus to Domitian. It is also possible that Revelation was written during the AD 60s, when Nero was persecuting the church and killing Christians.
During these times, Christians were experiencing significant anguish and persecution (2:9, 13; 3:9; 13:7). John called his readers to endurance and faithfulness (13:10).
Recipients
The recipients of Revelation were the churches in the Roman province of Asia (the western part of modern Turkey). The seven cities mentioned in chs 1–3 were joined by a triangular road system forming something like a mail route. These cities all lie in ruins today except for Smyrna, which is now the bustling modern seaport of Izmir, Turkey. The order of the cities in the seven letters is geographical and follows the route a courier probably took as he carried the book to each church to be read.
Meaning and Message
Revelation portrays the stark nature of evil while emphasizing how God is always present and at work to accomplish his purposes on behalf of his people. Even evil can only do what God allows (e.g., 6:3-4, 7-8; 13:5-7). Jesus is “the Alpha and the Omega” (1:8), the Lord over all history from beginning to end. Ultimately the powers of evil are futile. Satan has already lost the war (12:12); he can merely imitate and pervert what God does.
Revelation clarifies that what is done on earth has eternal consequences. God’s suffering servants may sometimes wonder whether Jesus is powerful enough to accomplish God’s purpose of salvation (6:9-10). Despite all the evil in the world, however, Revelation assures readers that the crucified and resurrected Lamb of God is truly the powerful Lion of the tribe of Judah (5:5-6). He is fully worthy to receive our praise (5:12), as he is united with the eternal God (5:13-14). Although the ways of the world result in war, violence, economic imbalance, and death (6:1-8), and although some people seem to profit from alignments with evil (13:15-17), these things will ultimately reap distress and doom (18:9-24). God’s people may be persecuted and die for their faith (13:7), but they will ultimately triumph with Christ (14:1-3) because they have been marked by the seal of God (7:4) and have been granted the white robe of victory (6:11; 7:9). They will have access to their heavenly dwelling (21:7), will continually praise God and the Lamb (7:10), and will live forever (22:5). Revelation reminds readers that the great victory over the powers of evil has already been won at the cross (5:5-6). Armageddon is a desperate act of defiance by a foe who is already defeated. While Satan is allowed to kill the saints (13:7), they have already conquered him through Christ and their own witness (12:11).
The message for Christians who suffer at the hands of Satan’s servants is not to weep or be afraid (1:17-18; 5:5) but to endure their suffering faithfully (13:10). With God they will prevail (1:6-7; 11:17-18). People will ultimately be judged by what they do and how they act (20:12), and God will bless those who pay attention to the words of this book (1:3; 22:7). God’s holy people are therefore called to persevere faithfully in order to be victorious (2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21). Revelation calls them to obey God, maintain their witness (12:17; 22:7), endure patiently (13:10; 14:12), and remain vigilant (16:15; 17:14) in the face of persecution, knowing that cowards will face eternal punishment along with evildoers (21:8).